Abstract
Current assessments of the commercial viability and productivity potential of microalgae biofuels have been forced to extrapolate small-scale research data. The resulting analyses are not representative of microalgae cultivation and processing at industrial scale. To more accurately assess the current near-term realizable, large-scale microalgae productivity potential in the USA, this paper presents a model of microalgae growth derived from industrial-scale outdoor photobioreactor growth data. This model is combined with thermal models of the photobioreactor system and 15 years of hourly historical weather data from 864 locations in the USA to more accurately assess the current productivity potential of microalgae. The resulting lipid productivity potential of Nannochloropsis is presented in the form of a map that incorporates various land availability models to illustrate the near-term feasible cultivation locations and corresponding productivity potentials for the USA. The discussion focuses on a comparison of model results with productivity potentials currently reported in literature, an assessment demonstrating the scale of Department of Energy 2030 alternative fuel goals, and a critical comparison of productivity potential in several key regions of the USA.
Similar content being viewed by others
Abbreviations
- PAR:
-
Photosynthetic active radiation
- PFD:
-
Photon flux density
- GIS:
-
Geographic information system
- PBR:
-
Photobioreactor
- ORP:
-
Open raceway pond
- DOE:
-
Department of Energy
- NLCD:
-
National Land Cover Database
- c p :
-
Specific heat of water (kJ kg−1 K−1)
- E a :
-
Activation energy carboxylation Rubisco (J mol−1)
- G bottom :
-
Solar energy reaching the bottom (W m−2)
- G n :
-
Solar energy reaching node n (W m−2)
- G sur :
-
Solar energy reaching the surface (W m−2)
- h i :
-
Convection coefficient (W m−2 K−1)
- h r :
-
Net radiation coefficient with the sky (W m−2 K−1)
- k :
-
Thermal conductivity of water (W m−1 K−1)
- L n :
-
Distance between nodes (m)
- m n :
-
Total mass represented by node n (kg)
- Q i :
-
Energy stored/released by ground (W m−2)
- R :
-
Universal gas constant (J K−1 mol−1)
- T 1 :
-
Temperature at node 1 (K)
- T ambient :
-
Temperature of the ambient (K)
- T n :
-
Temperature at node n (K)
- T n − 1 :
-
Temperature at node n minus 1 (K)
- T n + 1 :
-
Temperature at node n plus 1 (K)
- Topt :
-
Optimum microaglae growth temperature (K)
- T sky :
-
Temperature of the sky (K)
- T sur :
-
Temperature at the surface (K)
- T :
-
Temperature of microalgae culture (K)
- t :
-
Time (s)
- φ T :
-
Temperature efficiency factor
References
Schenk PM, Thomas-Hall SR, Stephens E, Marx UC, Mussgnug JH, Posten C et al (2008) Second generation biofuels: high-efficiency microalgae for biodiesel production. BioEnergy Res 1(1):20–43
Wijffels RH, Barbosa MJ (2010) An outlook on microalgal biofuels. Science 329(5993):796–799
Batan L, Quinn J, Willson B, Bradley T (2010) Net energy and greenhouse gas emission evaluation of biodiesel derived from microalgae. Environ Sci Technol 44:7975–7980
Mata TM, Martins AA, Caetano NS (2010) Microalgae for biodiesel production and other applications: a review. Renew Sust Energ Rev 14(1):217–232
Li Y, Horsman M, Wu N, Lan CQ, Dubois-Calero N (2008) Biofuels from microalgae. Biotechnol Prog 24(4):815–820
Lardon L, Helias A, Sialve B, Stayer JP, Bernard O (2009) Life-cycle assessment of biodiesel production from microalgae. Environ Sci Technol 43(17):6475–6481
Campbell PK, Beer T, Batten D (2011) Life cycle assessment of biodiesel production from microalgae in ponds. Bioresour Technol 102(1):50–56
Chisti Y (2007) Biodiesel from microalgae. Biotechnol Adv 25(3):294–306
Davis R, Aden A, Pienkos PT (2011) Techno-economic analysis of autotrophic microalgae for fuel production. Appl Energy 88(10):3524–3531
Maxwell EL, Folger AG, Hogg SE (1985) Resource evaluation and site selection for microalgae production systems. Solar Energy Research Institute: SERI/TR-215-2484
Magnuson J (2010) Algal biofuels. Paper presented at the Washington State Bioenergy Research Symposium, Seattle, WA, 8 November 2010
Wigmosta MS, Coleman AM, Skaggs RJ, Huesemann MH, Lane LJ (2011) National microalgae biofuel production potential and resource demand. Water Resour Res 47:W00H04
James SC, Boriah V (2010) Modeling algae growth in an open-channel raceway. J Comput Biol 17(7):895–906
Quinn J, de Winter L, Bradley T (2011) Microalgae bulk growth model with application to industrial scale systems. Bioresour Technol 102(8):5083–5092
Benemann JR, Goebel RP, Weissman JC, Augenstein DC (1982) Microalgae as a source of liquid fuels. Final technical report, US Department of Energy, Office of Research: DOE/ER/30014-TR
Lansford R, Hernandez J, Enis P, Truby D, Mapel C (1990) Evaluation of available saline water resources in New Mexico for the production of microalgae. Solar Energy Research Institute: SERI/TR-232-3597
Muhs J, Viamajala S, Heydorn B, Edwards M, Hu Q, Hobbs R et al (2009) A summary of opportunities, challenges, and research needs: algae biofuels & carbon recycling. www.utah.gov/ustar/documents/63.pdf. Cited 28 Jan 2011
Molineaux B, Lachal B, Guisan O (1994) Thermal analysis of five outdoor swimming pools heated by unglazed solar collectors. Sol Energy 53(1):21–26
Szeicz G, Mcmonagle RC (1983) The heat balance of urban swimming pools. Sol Energy 30(3):247–259
Weyer-Geigel KM (2008) Heat-balance model and thermal analysis of an algae growth system for biofuel. Thesis, Colorado State University
Sartori E (2000) A critical review on equations employed for the calculation of the evaporation rate from free water surfaces. Sol Energy 68(1):77–89
Duffie JA, Beckman WA (2006) Solar engineering of thermal processes. Wiley, Hoboken
Henley WJ (1993) Measurement and interpretation of photosynthetic light-response curves in algae in the context of photoinhibition and diel changes. J Phycol 29(6):729–739
Macintyre HL, Kana TM, Anning T, Geider RJ (2002) Photoacclimation of photosynthesis irradiance response curves and photosynthetic pigments in microalgae and cyanobacteria. J Phycol 38(1):17–38
Richmond A (2000) Microalgal biotechnology at the turn of the millennium: a personal view. J Appl Phycol 12:441–451
Goldman JC (1979) Outdoor algal mass-cultures. 2. Photosynthetic yield limitations. Water Res 13(2):119–136
Furuya K, Hasegawa O, Yoshikawa T, Taguchi S (1998) Photosynthesis–irradiance relationship of phytoplankton and primary production in the vicinity of Kuroshio warm core ring in spring. J Oceanogr 54:545–552
Harding LW, Prezelin BB, Sweeney BM, Cox JL (1982) Diel oscillations of the photosynthesis–irradiance (P–I) relationship in natural assemblages of phytoplankton. Mar Biol 67(2):167–178
Ihnken S, Eggert A, Beardall J (2010) Exposure times in rapid light curves affect photosynthetic parameters in algae. Aquat Bot 93(3):185–194
Alexandrov GA, Yamagata Y (2007) A peaked function for modeling temperature dependence of plant productivity. Ecol Model 200(1–2):189–192
Geider RJ, Macintyre HL, Kana TM (1997) Dynamic model of phytoplankton growth and acclimation: Responses of the balanced growth rate and the chlorophyll a:carbon ratio to light, nutrient-limitation and temperature. Marine Ecol Prog Ser 148(1–3):187–200
Wilcox S (2007) 1991–2005 national solar radiation database. http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/servlets/purl/908182-AmuLTA/. Cited 1 Oct 2010
Arcgis (2010) World topographic map. http://www.arcgis.com/home/item.html?id=f2498e3d0ff642bfb4b155828351ef0e. Cited 1 Nov 2010
U.S. Geological Survey (2001) National land cover database (NLCD 2001). http://www.mrlc.gov/nlcd_multizone_map.php. Cited 15 Nov 2010
Office of E-Government & Information (2010) U.S. Map and data. www.geodata.gov. Cited November 2010
U.S. Department of Energy (2010) National algal biofuels technology roadmap. Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Biomass Program, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC
Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (2010) CGIAR CSI. www.cgiar-csi.org. Cited November 2010
Department of Energy (2007) Alternative fuel transportation program; replacement fuel goal modification. Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/epact/pdfs/rfg_final_rule_fr_notice.pdf Cited 25 Jan 2011
Pienkos PT, Darzins A (2009) The promise and challenges of microalgal-derived biofuels. Biofuels Bioprod Biorefining-Biofpr 3(4):431–440
Scott SA, Davey MP, Dennis JS, Horst I, Howe CJ, Lea-Smith DJ et al (2010) Biodiesel from algae: challenges and prospects. Curr Opin Biotechnol 21(3):277–286
Clarens AF, Resurreccion EP, White MA, Colosi LM (2010) Environmental life cycle comparison of algae to other bioenergy feedstocks. Environ Sci Technol 44(5):1813–1819
Sheehan J, Dunahay T, Benemann J, Roessler P (1998) A look back at the US department of energy’s aquatic species program: biodiesel from algae. NREL report: TP-580-24190
Huntley ME, Redalje DG (2007) CO2 mitigation and renewable oil from photosynthetic microbes: a new appraisal. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Chang 12:573–608
Chisti Y (2008) Response to Reijnders: do biofuels from microalgae beat biofuels from terrestrial plants? Trends Biotechnol 26(7):351–352
Chisti Y (2008) Biodiesel from microalgae beats bioethanol. Trends Biotechnol 26(3):126–131
Rodolfi L, Zittelli GC, Bassi N, Padovani G, Biondi N, Bonini G et al (2009) Microalgae for oil: strain selection, induction of lipid synthesis and outdoor mass cultivation in a low-cost photobioreactor. Biotechnol Bioeng 102(1):100–112
Hirano A, Hon-Nami K, Kunito S, Hada M, Ogushi Y (1998) Temperature effect on continuous gasification of microalgal biomass: theoretical yield of methanol production and its energy balance. Catal Today 45(1–4):399–404
Williams PJL, Laurens LML (2010) Microalgae as biodiesel & biomass feedstocks: review & analysis of the biochemistry, energetics & economics. Energy Environ Sci 3(5):554–590
Sawayama S, Minowa T, Yokoyama SY (1999) Possibility of renewable energy production and CO2 mitigation by thermochemical liquefaction of microalgae. Biomass Bioenergy 17(1):33–39
Yeang K (2008) Biofuel from algae. Archit Des 78(3):118–119
Hazlebeck D (2010) General atomics alternative fuels. Paper presented at the Pacific Rim Summit on Industrial Biotechnology & Bioenergy, Honolulu, HI, 11–14 December 2010
Berner K (2010) Commercializing algal biofuels. Paper presented at the Pacific Rim Summit on Industrial Biotechnology & Bioenergy, Honolulu, HI, 11–14 December 2010
Cyanotech (2007) Welcome to Cyanotech. http://www.cyanotech.com/index.html. Cited April 2011
U.S. Department of Energy (2008) Memorandum of understanding between the state of Hawaii and the U.S. Department of Energy. Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Washington, DC
Lingle L, Lau C, Liu T, Alm R, Awakuni C (2008) Energy agreement among the state of Hawaii, Division of Consumer Advocacy of the Department of Commerce and Consumer Affairs, and the Hawaiian Electric Companies. Hawaii Clean Energy Initiative, Hawaii
U.S. Energy Information Administration (2009) Total petroleum consumption estimates. http://www.eia.gov/emeu/states/hf.jsp?incfile=sep_fuel/html/fuel_use_pa.html. Cited April 2011
Acknowledgments
We gratefully acknowledge support from Solix Biosystems and thermal modeling support form Kristina M. Weyer.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
ESM 1
(PDF 1.14 mb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Quinn, J.C., Catton, K., Wagner, N. et al. Current Large-Scale US Biofuel Potential from Microalgae Cultivated in Photobioreactors. Bioenerg. Res. 5, 49–60 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12155-011-9165-z
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12155-011-9165-z