Abstract
This study aimed to examine the construct validity and reliability of the adapted version of the Cyberbullying Inventory for College Students for use in the Chilean university context. This measure includes 4 scales that evaluate participation in the phenomenon of cyberbullying in different roles. In addition, we analyzed the prevalence of cyberbullying and characterized experiences of cyberbullying among students. In total, 256 students (Mage= 20.25; SD = 2.24) from a Chilean university participated in this study. The results showed the one-dimensional plausibility of each of the scales and goodness-of-fit indices in conformity with the psychometric parameters. The reliability values (α and ω) ranged from 0.91 to 0.99. The results showed that 68.7% of respondents were victims, 31.2% were aggressors, 70.3% were observers of victims, and 28.5% were observers of aggressors. We also found that male students who did not live with their parents and urban residents were more involved as victims, aggressors, observers of victims and observers of aggressors. The findings highlight the importance of measures with good psychometric indicators to evaluate cyberbullying. Furthermore, university students’ experiences of cyberbullying underline the urgency of policies and intervention programs in university contexts.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The datasets analyzed in the present study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
Abaido, G. M. (2020). Cyberbullying on social media platforms among university students in the United Arab Emirates. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 25(1), 407–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1669059.
Alrajeh, S. M., Hassan, H. M., Al-Ahmed, A. S., & Alsayed Hassan, D. (2021). An investigation of the relationship between cyberbullying, cybervictimization and depression symptoms: A cross sectional study among university students in Qatar. PLoS One, 16(12), e0260263. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260263.
Andrade, C. (2021). The inconvenient truth about convenience and purposive samples. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 43(1), 86–88. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176209770.
Arias Cerón, M., Buendía Eisman, L., & Fernández Palomares, F. (2018). Grooming, cyberbullying and sexting in Chile according of sex and school management or administrative dependency. Revista Chilena De pediatría, 89(3), 352–360. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0370-41062018005000201.
Ato, M., López-García, J. J., & Benavente, A. (2013). A classification system for research designs in psychology. Annals of Psychology, 29(3), 1038–1059. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.29.3.178511.
Borsa, J. C., Damásio, B. F., & Bandeira, D. R. (2012). Cross-cultural adaptation and validation of psychological instruments: Some considerations. Paidéia, 22, 423–432. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-863X2012000300014.
Byrne, B. M. (2016). Adaptation of assessment scales in cross-national research: Issues, guidelines, and caveats. International Perspectives in Psychology: Research Practice Consultation, 5, 51–65. https://doi.org/10.1037/ipp0000042.
Caetano, A. P., Amado, J., Martins, M. J. D., Veiga Simão, A. M., Freire, I., & Pessôa, M. T. R. (2017). Cyberbullying: Motives of aggression from the perspective of young Portuguese. Educação & Sociedade, 38(141), 1017–1034. https://doi.org/10.1590/ES0101-73302017139852.
Chang, F. C., Miao, N. F., Chiu, C. H., Chen, P. H., Lee, C. M., Chiang, J. T., & Chuang, H. Y. (2016). Urban–rural differences in parental internet mediation and adolescents’ internet risks in Taiwan. Health Risk & Society, 18(3–4), 188–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698575.2016.1190002.
Condeza, R., Gallardo, G., & Pérez, P. R. (2019). Experiences of Cyberbullying at a Chilean University: The Voices of Students. In W. Cassidy, C. Faucher, y M. Jackson (Eds.). Cyberbullying at University in International Contexts (pp. 36–51). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315189406.
DeVellis, R. F., & Thorpe, C. T. (2021). Scale development: Theory and applications. Sage publications.
Donat, M., Willisch, A., & Wolgast, A. (2022). Cyber-bullying among university students: Concurrent relations to belief in a just world and to empathy. Current Psychology, 42, 7883–7896. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03239-z.
Estévez, E., Cañas, E., Estévez, J. F., & Povedano, A. (2020). Continuity and overlap of roles in victims and aggressors of bullying and cyberbullying in adolescence: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(20), 7452. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17207452.
Fernandes, L. M., Diniz, R. D., Almeida, T. C., Neves, A. C., & Brito, J. (2022). Portuguese Cyber victims’ self-esteem and gender in Young Adulthood. Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma, 31(1), 133–147. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2021.1970674.
Ferrando, P. J., & Lorenzo-Seva, U. (2014). Exploratory item factor analysis: Additional considerations. Annals of Psychology, 30(3), 1170–1175. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.30.3.199991.
Ferreira, A. S., Veiga Simão, A. M., Ferreira, A. I., Souza, S. B., & Francisco, S. M. (2016). Student bystander behavior and cultural issues in cyberbullying: When actions speak louder than words. Computers in Human Behavior, 60, 301–311, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.02.059.
Field, A. P. (2018). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (5th ed.). SAGE.
Francisco, S. M., Veiga Simão, A. M. V., Ferreira, P. C., & Martins, M. J. D. (2015). Cyberbullying: The hidden side of college students. Computers in Human Behavior, 43, 167–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.10.045.
Gahagan, K., Vaterlaus, J. M., & Frost, L. R. (2016). College student cyberbullying on social networking sites: Conceptualization, prevalence, and perceived bystander responsibility. Computers in Human Behavior, 55, 1097–1105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.11.019.
Garaigordobil, M. (2017). Psychometric properties of the Cyberbullying Test, a screening instrument to measure cybervictimization, cyberaggression, and cyberobservation. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(23), 3556–3576. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515600165.
Garaigordobil, M., Mollo-Torrico, J. P., & Larrain Mariño, E. (2018). Prevalence of bullying and cyberbullying in Latin America: a review. Revista Iberoamericana de Psicología, 11(3), 1–18. Retrieved from: https://revistas.iberoamericana.edu.co/index.php/ripsicologia/article/view/1435-4972.
Goretzko, D., Pham, T. T. H., & Bühner, M. (2021). Exploratory factor analysis: Current use, methodological developments and recommendations for good practice. Current Psychology, 40, 3510–3521. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00300-2.
Halpern, D., Piña, M., & Vásquez, J. (2017). Loneliness, personal and social well-being: Towards a conceptualization of the effects of cyberbullying. Cultura Y Educación, 29(4), 703–727. https://doi.org/10.1080/11356405.2017.1370818.
Hamuddin, B., Syahdan, S., Rahman, F., Rianita, D., & Derin, T. (2019). Do they truly intend to harm their friends? The motives beyond cyberbullying among university students. International Journal of Cyber Behavior Psychology and Learning, 9(4), 32–44. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJCBPL.2019100103.
Hernández, A., Hidalgo, M. D., Hambleton, R. K., & Gómez Benito, J. (2020). International test commission guidelines for test adaptation: A criterion checklist. Psicothema, 32(3), 390–398. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2019.306.
Herrera-López, M., Romera, E. M., y, & Ortega-Ruiz, R. (2018). Bullying and Cyberbullying in Latin America. A bibliometric study. Revista mexicana de investigación educativa, 23(76), 125–155.
Huang, J., Zhong, Z., Zhang, H., & Li, L. (2021). Cyberbullying in Social Media and Online games among Chinese College Students and its Associated factors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(9), 4819. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094819.
International Test Commission (ITC). (2019). ITC guidelines for the large-scale assessment of linguistically and culturally diverse populations. International Journal of Testing, 19(4), 301–336. https://doi.org/10.1080/15305058.2019.1631024.
Jenaro, C., Flores, N., & Frías, C. P. (2018). Systematic review of empirical studies on cyberbullying in adults: What we know and what we should investigate. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 38, 113–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2017.12.003.
Kaur, M., & Saini, M. (2023). Indian government initiatives on cyberbullying: A case study on cyberbullying in Indian higher education institutions. Education and Information Technologies, 28(1), 581–615. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11168-4.
Khine, A. T., Saw, Y. M., Htut, Z. Y., Khaing, C. T., Soe, H. Z., Swe, K. K., Thike, T., Htet, H., Saw, T. N., Cho, S. M., Kariya, T., Yamamoto, E., & Hamajima, N. (2020). Assessing risk factors and impact of cyberbullying victimization among university students in Myanmar: A cross-sectional study. Plos One, 15(1), e0227051. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227051.
Kowalski, R. M., Limber, S. P., & McCord, A. (2019). A developmental approach to cyberbullying: Prevalence and protective factors. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 45, 20–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.02.009.
Kyriazos, T. A. (2018). Applied psychometrics: Sample size and sample power considerations in factor analysis (EFA, CFA) and SEM in general. Psychology, 9(08), 2207. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2018.98126.
Labbé, C., López-Neira, L., Saiz, J. L., Vinet, E. V., & Boero, P. (2019). Use of ICT among Chilean University students: Approach from the perspective of emerging Adulthood. Pensamiento Educativo, 56(2), 1–14.
Larrañaga, E., Yubero, S., & Ovejero, A. (2016). Gender Variables and Cyberbullying in College Students. In R. Navarro, S. Yubero, y E. Larrañaga (Eds.). Cyberbullying Across the Globe: Gender, Family, and Mental Health (pp. 63–77). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25552-1.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer publishing company.
López, A., López, L., Cetz, N., & Yedra, R. (2020). Ciberbullying en estudiantes universitarios [Cyberbullying in university students]. Revista Gênero E Direito, 9(1), 115–131. https://doi.org/10.22478/ufpb.2179-7137.2020v9n01.50515.
Lorenzo-Seva, U., & Ferrando, P. J. (2013). Factor 9.2: A comprehensive program for fitting exploratory and semiconfirmatory factor analysis and IRT models. Applied Psychological Measurement, 37(6), 497–498. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146621613487794.
Macdonald, C. D., & Roberts-Pittman, B. (2010). Cyberbullying among college students: Prevalence and demographic differences. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 9, 2003–2009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.12.436.
Marciano, L., Schulz, P. J., & Camerini, A. L. (2020). Cyberbullying perpetration and victimization in youth: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 25(2), 163–181. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmz031.
Martínez-Monteagudo, M. C., Delgado, B., García-Fernández, J. M., & Ruíz-Esteban, C. (2020). Cyberbullying in the University setting. Relationship with emotional problems and adaptation to the University. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.03074.
Matamala, C., & Hinostroza, J. E. (2020). Factors related to the academic use of the internet in Higher Education. Pensamiento Educativo, 57(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.7764/pel.57.1.2020.7.
Memon, M. A., Ting, H., Cheah, J. H., Thurasamy, R., Chuah, F., & Cham, T. H. (2020). Sample size for Survey Research: Review and recommendations. Journal of Applied Structural Equation Modeling, 4(2), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.47263/JASEM.4(2)01.
Méndez, I., Ruiz Esteban, C., Martínez, J. P., & Cerezo, F. (2019). Cyberbullying according to sociodemographic and academic characteristics among university students. Revista Española De Pedagogía, 77(273), 261–276. https://doi.org/10.22550/REP77-2-2019-06.
Olweus, D. (2012). Cyberbullying: An overrated phenomenon? European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9(5), 520–538. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2012.682358.
Olweus, D., & Limber, S. P. (2018). Some problems with cyberbullying research. Current Opinion in Psychology, 19, 139–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.04.012.
Orçan, F. (2018). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: Which one to use first? Journal of Measurement and Evaluation in Education and Psychology, 9(4), 414–421. https://doi.org/10.21031/epod.394323.
Orel, A., Campbell, M., Wozencroft, K., Leong, E., & Kimpton, M. (2017). Exploring university students’ coping strategy intentions for cyberbullying. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(3), 446–462. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515586363.
Pardo-González, E., & Souza, S. B. (2022a). Cyberbullying in Chile: Evidence and pathways for future research from a systematic review. Estudios pedagógicos, 48(3), 335–353. https://doi.org/10.4067/s0718-07052022000300335.
Pardo-González, E., & Souza, S. B. (2022b). What do parents think about cyberbullying? A systematic review of qualitative studies. Revista De Educación, 397, 93–117. https://doi.org/10.4438/1988-592X-RE-2022-397-541.
Pomytkina, L., Podkopaieva, Y., & Hordiienko, K. (2021). Peculiarities of manifestation of student youth’ roles and positions in the cyberbullying process. International Journal of Modern Education and Computer Science, 13(6), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.5815/ijmecs.2021.06.01.
Prieto, M. T., Carrillo, J. C., & López, L. A. (2015). Violencia virtual y acoso escolar entre estudiantes universitarios: El Lado oscuro de las redes sociales [Virtual Violence and bullying among university students: The dark side of social networks]. Innovación Educativa, 15(68), 33–47. https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php/pid=S166526732015000200004/script=sci_abstract/tlng=pt.
Roberto, A. J., Eden, J., Savage, M. W., Ramos-Salazar, L., & Deiss, D. M. (2014). Prevalence and predictors of cyberbullying perpetration by high school seniors. Communication Quarterly, 62(1), 97–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463373.2013.860906.
Rodríguez-Rivas, M., Varela, J. J., González, C., & Chuecas, M. J. (2021). The Role of Family Support and Conflict as Predictors of Cyberbullying and Subjective Well-Being During the Covid-19 Period for Chilean Adolescents. Available at SSRN 3931695. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3931695.
Saleem, S., Khan, N. F., & Zafar, S. (2021). Prevalence of cyberbullying victimization among Pakistani youth. Technology in Society, 65, 101577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.101577.
Shaikh, F. B., Rehman, M., & Amin, A. (2020). Cyberbullying: A Systematic Literature Review to Identify the Factors Impelling University Students Towards Cyberbullying. IEEE Access, 8. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3015669.
Smith, P. K. (2015). The nature of cyberbullying and what we can do about it. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 15(3), 176–184. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-3802.12114.
Souza, S. B., Veiga Simão, A. M., & Caetano, A. P. (2014). Cyberbullying: Perceptions about the phenomenon and coping strategies. Psicologia: Reflexão E Crítica, 27, 582–590. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-7153.201427320.
Souza, S. B., Veiga Simão, A. M., Ferreira, A. I., & Ferreira, P. C. (2018). University students’ perceptions of campus climate, cyberbullying, and cultural issues: Implications for theory and practice. Studies in Higher Education, 43(11), 2072–2087. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2017.1307818.
Souza, S. B., Ferreira, P. C., Veiga Simão, A. M. V., & Fernández, D. F. (2022). The dynamic of cyberbullying in university students: Moderating effects of gender and culture. REMIE: Multidisciplinary Journal of Educational Research, 12(3), 322–348. http://dx.doi.org/10.447/remie.8999.
Timmerman, M. E., & Lorenzo-Seva, U. (2011). Dimensionality Assessment of ordered polytomous items with parallel analysis. Psychological Methods, 16, 209–220. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023353.
Torres, F. C., & Vivas, G. M. (2016). Cyberbullying and education: A review of emergent issues in Latin America research. In R. Navarro, S. Yubero, y E. Larrañaga (Eds.). Cyberbullying Across the Globe: Gender, Family, and Mental Health (pp. 131–147). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25552-1.
Trajtenberg, N., Dodel, M., De Ribera, S., Cabello, O., P., & Claro, M. (2021). Online and offline victimisation: A cluster analysis of adolescent victims of bullying and cyber-bullying in Chile. Journal of Children and Media, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2021.1902358.
Varela, J. J., Zimmerman, M. A., Ryan, A. M., & Stoddard, S. A. (2018). Cyberbullying among Chilean students and the protective effects of positive school communities. Journal of School Violence, 17(4), 430–442. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2017.1358640.
Varela, J. J., Guzmán, J., Alfaro, J., & Reyes, F. (2019). Bullying, cyberbullying, student life satisfaction and the community of Chilean adolescents. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 14(3), 705–720. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-018-9610-7.
Varela, J. J., Sánchez-Soto, P. A., Chuecas, J., Benavente, M., González, C., Acuña-Wagner, E. A., & Torres, A. O. (2021). Cyberbullying. Bullying and antisocial behavior among chilean adolescents. Tesis Psicológica, 16(2), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.37511/tesis.v16n2a8.
Varela, J. J., Hernández, C., Berger, C., Souza, S. B., & Pacheco, E. (2022a). To ignore or not to ignore: The differential effect of coping mechanisms on depressive symptoms when facing adolescent cyberbullying. Computers in Human Behavior, 107268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107268.
Varela, J. J., Hernández, C., Miranda, R., Barlett, C. P., & Rodríguez-Rivas, M. E. (2022b). Victims of cyberbullying: Feeling loneliness and depression among Youth and Adult chileans during the pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 5886. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105886.
Wang, M. J., Yogeeswaran, K., Andrews, N. P., Hawi, D. R., & Sibley, C. G. (2019). How common is cyberbullying among adults? Exploring gender, ethnic, and age differences in the prevalence of cyberbullying. Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking, 22(11), 736–741. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2019.0146.
Watts, L. K., Wagner, J., Velasquez, B., & Behrens, P. I. (2017). Cyberbullying in higher education: A literature review. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 268–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.12.038.
Zalaquett, C. P., & Chatters, S. J. (2014). Cyberbullying in college: Frequency, characteristics, and practical implications. Sage Open, 4, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014526721.
Zych, I., Ortega-Ruiz, R., & Marín-López, I. (2016). Cyberbullying: A systematic review of research, its prevalence and assessment issues in Spanish studies. Psicología Educativa, 22(1), 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pse.2016.03.002.
Funding
This work was funded by Vicerrectoría de Investigación y Postgrado (VRIP) de la Universidad Católica del Maule (UCM-IN-21206).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Sidclay B. Souza: Funding acquisition; Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Formal analysis, Visualization, (Most) Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review & Editing, Supervision, Project administration. Elizabeth Pardo-Gonzalez: Visualization; Writing - Original Draft. Paula Paulino: Writing - original draft; Writing - review & editing. Sofia M. Francisco: Writing - original draft; Writing - review & editing. Josefina Fredes-Montero: Methodology; Writing - original draft. Henry Agusto Herrera; Methodology; Writing - original draft.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Authorship confirmation statement
All the co-authors contribute to different sections of the study and manuscript preparation.
Authors disclosure statement
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Conflict of interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare and have approved the submitted manuscript.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Souza, S.B., Pardo-Gonzalez, E., Paulino, P. et al. Measuring and characterizing cyberbullying among Chilean university students. Curr Psychol 43, 17416–17431 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-05541-w
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-05541-w