Abstract
The purpose of this study is to investigate the repatriate experience of South Korean Third Culture Kids (TCKs) and to examine which factors have helped their adjustment in college. For these aims, we interviewed eight South Korean TCKs and employed Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR) to analize the interview data. As results, four domains (academic, individual relationships, individual adjustment, and involvement with campus features) were developed and 13 core ideas were reported. At the end, we presented implications for higher education institutes and counseling professionals. The results of the present study will be useful for the TCKs to help them reduce the difficulties that they experience in college. The findings of the study will also contribute to the multicultural field relating TCK populations.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of data and materials
The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Abe, J. A. A. (2018). Personality, well-being, and cognitive-affective styles: A cross-sectional study of adult third culture kids. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 49(5), 811–830.
Baker, R. W., & Siryk, B. (1984). Measuring adjustment to college. Journal of counseling psychology, 31(2), 179. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.31.2.179
Bean, J. P., & Metzner, B. (1985). A conceptual model of nontraditional undergraduate student attrition. Review of Educational Research, 55(4), 485–540.
Bennett, C., & Okinaka, A. M. (1990). Factors related to persistence among asian, black, hispanic, and white undergraduates at a predominantly white university: Comparison between first and fourth year cohorts. Urban Review, 22(1), 33–60.
Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Applied psychology, 46(1), 5–34.
Berry, J. W. (2005). Acculturation: Living successfully in two cultures. International journal of intercultural relations, 29(6), 697–712.
Bikos, L., Kocheleva, J., King, D., Chang, G., McKenzie, A., Roenicke, C., et al. (2009). A consensual qualitative investigation into the repatriation experiences of young adult, missionary kids. Mental Health Religion & Culture, 12(7), 735–754.
Bredeman, A. (2015). Helping Missionary Kid Repatriation. (Senior Thesis) Available from Liberty University Digital Commons.
Briggs, A. R., Clark, J., & Hall, I. (2012). Building bridges: Understanding student transition to university. Quality in higher education, 18(1), 3–21.
Buote, V. M., Pancer, S. M., Pratt, M. W., Adams, G., Birnie-Lefcovitch, S., Polivy, J., & Wintre, M. G. (2007). The importance of friends: Friendship and Adjustment among 1st-Year University students. Journal of Adolescent Research, 22(6), 665–689.
Credé, M., & Niehorster, S. (2012). Adjustment to college as measured by the student adaptation to college questionnaire: A quantitative review of its structure and relationships with correlates and consequences. Educational Psychology Review, 24(1), 133–165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-011-9184-5
Davis, P., Headley, K., Bazemore, T., Cervo, J., Sinkinger, P., Windham, M., & Rehfuss, M. (2010). Evaluating impact of transition seminars on missionary kids’ depression, anxiety, stress, and well-being. Journal of Psychology & Theology, 38(3), 186–194.
Dillon, A., & Ali, T. (2019). Global nomads, cultural chameleons, strange ones or immigrants? An exploration of Third Culture Kid terminology with reference to the United Arab Emirates. Journal of Research in International Education, 18(1), 77–89.
Eakin, K. B. (1998). According to my passport, I’m coming home. US Department of State, Family Liaison Office.
Ender, M. (2002). Military brats and other global nomads. Westport, CT: Praeger.
Fail, H., Thompson, J., & Walker, G. (2004). Belonging, identity and Third Culture Kids. Journal of Research in International Education, 3(3), 319–338.
Gleason, T. P. (1970). Social adjustment patterns and manifestations of worldmindedness of overseas-experienced American youth. (Doctoral dissertation) Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global database.
Göransson, B., & Brundenius, C. (Eds.). (2010). Universities in transition: The changing role and challenges for academic institutions. Springer Science & Business Media.
Hartman, C. J. (2022). Adult third culture kids: Impacts on adult lives of living internationally and attending boarding school. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 86, 122–133.
Hervey, E. (2009). Cultural transitions during childhood and adjustment to college. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 28(1), 3–12.
Hill, C. E., Thompson, B. J., & Williams, E. N. (1997). A guide to conducting consensual qualitative research. The counseling psychologist, 25(4), 517–572. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000097254001
Hill, C. E., Knox, S., Thompson, B. J., Williams, E. N., Hess, S. A., & Ladany, N. (2005). Consensual qualitative research: An update. Journal of counseling psychology, 52(2), 196. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.52.2.196
Iem, Y. S., & Shim, T. E. (2017). Exploration on adaptation to korean society of students with long-term overseas experience: Focused on CQR. The Journal of Humanities Studies, 53, 501–537.
Ittel, A., & Sisler, A. (2012). Third culture kids: Adjusting to a changing world. Diskurs Kindheits-und Jugendforschung/Discourse. Journal of Childhood and Adolescence Research, 7(4), 21–22.
Jeon, H. I. (2003). An ethnographic study on the problem of returnees’ adaptation in high school student. (Master’s thesis, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonbuk, South Korea) Retrieved from http://www.riss.kr/
Jeon, A. (2021). Growing up (un) bounded: globalization, mobility and belonging among Korean third culture kids. International Multilingual Research Journal, 1–13.
Kadam, R., Rao, S., Kareem, A., Waheed, J., & Shazi, S. (2019). A comprehensive examination of antecedents of cultural intelligence amongst students: Testing the moderation effect of third culture kids. The international journal of educational management, 34(2), 245–262.
Kim, H. S. (2007). An analysis on school life adjustment of the youth studying abroad and the one returning from study abroad. (Master’s thesis, Konkuk University, Seoul, South Korea) Retrieved from http://www.riss.kr/
Kim, I. (2014). A study on the spill-over Effect of Hallyu and K-Pop. Journal of Korean Society for Rhythmic Exercises, 6(7), 1–12.
Kim, N., & Lee (2015). The impact of social support on the psychological well-being of returnee college students and ordinary college students: Mediating effects of resilience. The Korea Journal of Counseling, 16(3), 433–449.
Kim, H. J., & Yoo, S. (2008). Adjustment process of korean Adolescents studying abroad in the U. S. The Korea Journal of Counseling, 9(2), 615–644.
Kwon, J. (2018). Third Culture Kids: Growing up with mobility and cross-cultural transitions. Studies of Migration Integration Equity and Cultural Survival, 13(2), 113–122.
Lam, H., & Selmer, J. (2004). Are former “third-culture kids” the ideal business expatriates? Career Development International, 9(2), 109–122.
Lee, H. J. (2009). The relationship between the experience of studying abroad, ego-identity and school life adaptation for adolescents. (Master’s Thesis, Ewha Womans University, Seoul: South Korea).
Lee, S. K. (2017). Relationship between and cultural homelessness of Third Culture Kids (TCKs) and their psychological well-being: Mediation effects of resilience. Korean Journal of Youth Studies, 24(3), 131–514.
Lee, Y., & Lee, D. (2009). A qualitative study on the in-country adjustment of korean adolescents returning back from studying abroad. The Korea Journal of Counseling, 10(4), 1783–1804.
Lee, S., Choi, K., & Oh, I. (2022). Korean cross-cultural kids’ acculturation types and cultural adaptation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 87, 131–141.
Lijadi, A. A., Gertina, J., & van Schalkwyk (2014). Narratives of third culture kids: Commitment and reticence in social relationships. The Qualitative Report, 19(25), 1.
Long, K. (2020). Fractured stories: Self-experiences of Third Culture Kids. Journal of Infant Child and Adolescent Psychotherapy, 19(2), 134–147.
Magno, C. (2010). Korean students’ language learning strategies and years of studying English as predictors of proficiency in English. TESOL Journal, 2, 39–61.
Miller, S. T., Wiggins, G. M., & Feather, K. A. (2020). Growing up globally: Third Culture Kids’ experience with transition, identity, and well-being. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 42, 414–423.
Mortimer, M. (2010). Adult third culture kids: Common themes, relational struggles and therapeutic experiences (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://www.proquest.umi.com.argo.library.okstate.edu/
Mosanya, M., & Kwiatkowska, A. (2021). Complex but integrated: Exploring social and cultural identities of women third culture kids (TCK) and factors predicting life satisfaction. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 84, 65–78.
Mosanya, M., & Kwiatkowska, A. (2023). New Ecological paradigm and third culture kids: Multicultural identity configurations, global mindset and values as predictors of environmental worldviews. International Journal of Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12887
Pollock, D. C., & Van Reken, R. E. (2001). Third culture kids: The experience of growing up among worlds. Yarmouth, Maine: Nicholas Brealey.
Pollock, D. C., & Van Reken, R. E. (2009). Third culture kids, growing up among worlds. Boston: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
Pratt, M., Hunsberger, B., Pancer, S., Alisat, S., Bowers, C., Mackey, K., et al. (2000). Facilitating the transition to university: Evaluation of a social support discussion intervention program. Journal of College Student Development, 41, 427–441.
Quick, T. L. (2010). The global nomad’s guide to university transition. Great Britain: Summertime Publishing.
Ra, Y. (2017). Impact of demographic variables and coping strategies on Depression among Korean International Students in the U.S. Journal of Education & Culture, 23(2), 285–302.
Ra, Y., Kim, H. J., & Kim, H. M. (2019). Analyzing Learning Experiences of Third Culture Kids (TCK) in Korean College. Journal of Learner-Centered Curriculum and Instruction, 19(22), 583–610.
Smith, V. J., & Kearney, K. S. (2016). A qualitative exploration of the repatriation experiences of US Third Culture Kids in College. Journal of College Student Development, 57(8), 958–972.
Szkudlarek, B. (2009). Through western eyes: Insights into the intercultural training field. Organization Studies, 30(9), 975–986.
Tan, E. C., Wang, K. T., & Cottrell, A. B. (2021). A systematic review of third culture kids empirical research. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 82, 81–98.
Tao, S., Dong, Q., Pratt, M. W., Hunsberger, B., & Pancer, S. M. (2000). Social Support: Relations to Coping and Adjustment during the transition to University in the Peoples Republic of China. Journal of Adolescent Research, 5(1), 123–144.
Taylor, B. (2022). Third Culture Kid Definition. Interaction International. Posted on May 12.
Thurston-Gonzalez, S. (2009). A qualitative investigation of the college choice experiences and reentry expectations of U.S American Third Culture Kids (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://proquest.umi.com.argo.library.okstate.edu/
Trethewy, T., & Vanderburg, M. (2022). Raising the awareness of shortfalls of transition programs in international schools: From the perspective of a third culture kid. Journal of Information Technologies and Lifelong Learning, 5(1), 214–221.
Useem, R. H. (1971). Education of third culture children: An annotated bibliography. Studies in third cultures: A Continuing Series, (No. 1). East Lansing, Michigan. Institute for International Studies in Education.
Useem, R. H. (1984). ‘Third culture children’, Notes on a lecture given at the US Information Services in Lusaka in March 1984 (stored in Billy Graham Library, Wheaton, IL).
Useem, R. H., & Donoghue, J. D. (1963). Men in the middle of the third culture: The roles of american and non-western people in cross-cultural administration. Human rganization, 22(3), 169–179.
Vazsonyi, A. T., & Belliston, L. M. (2006). The Cultural and Developmental significance of parenting processes in adolescent anxiety and depression symptoms. J Youth Adolescence Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35(4), 491–505.
Wall, M. F., & Born, M. P. (2021). Where I’m from? Third Culture Kids about their cultural identity shifts and belonging. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 84, 65–78.
Weigel, D. S. (2010). Third-culture students: An exploratory study of transition in the first year of college (Doctoral dissertation).
Williams, S. R. (2023). U.S. third culture kids’ identity and college success. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 94, 101801.
Wintre, M. G., & Yaffe, M. (2000). First-year students’ adjustment to university life as a function of relationships with parents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 15(1), 9–37.
Wintre, M. G., Bowers, C., Gordner, N., & Lange, L. (2006). Re-evaluating the university attrition statistic: A longitudinal follow-up study. Journal of Adolescent Research, 21(2), 111–132.
Wyse, B. (1998). Preparing our MKs for college? In J. M. Bower (Ed.), Raising resilient MKs (pp. 374–380). Colorado Springs, CO: ACSI.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
Informed consents
Informed consents were obtained from all participants.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Ra, YA., Ko, H., Cha, I. et al. A qualitative exploration on repatriate experiences of south korean third culture kids in college. Curr Psychol 43, 3889–3900 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-04654-6
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-04654-6