Abstract
Based on the theoretical frameworks of Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory and Theory of Triadic Influence (TTI), the study aimed to examine the relationships between Problematic Internet Use (PIU) and different sources of social support in a large sample of adolescents, and whether refusal self-efficacy of Internet use mediates the relationships. This cross-sectional study recruited 1127 participants from junior high schools in Taiwan, and were asked to complete self-report questionnaires containing the Social Support Scale, Virtual Social Support Scale, Refusal Self-Efficacy of Internet Use Scale, and Chinese Internet Addiction Scale-Revised. Results showed that refusal self-efficacy negatively predicted PIU, and social support from different sources and has a varied effect on PIU. Online social support was positively correlated with PIU, while offline social support from parents had a negative correlation with PIU. However, the relationship between off-line social support from friends and PIU, and the relationship between off-line social support from friends and refusal self-efficacy did not correlate. In addition, refusal self-efficacy partially mediated the positive prediction of PIU by online social support, while it fully mediated the negative prediction of PIU by offline social support from parents. Our findings supported Bandura’s theory and TTI, which indicated that human behaviors are influenced by environmental and intrapersonal factors, suggesting that different types of social support may lead to various effects on PIU and that refusal self-efficacy can mediate the predictions of social support for PIU. These findings can be used to develop PIU prevention programs for adolescents that include both social support and refusal self-efficacy components.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability statement
The dataset generated and analyzed during the current study is available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.84.2.191
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. W. H. Freeman.
Bandura, A. (1999). A sociocognitive analysis of substance abuse: An agentic perspective. Psychological Science, 10(3), 214–217. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00138
Bandura, A. (2002). Social foundations of thought and action. In D. F. Marks (Ed.), The health psychology reader (pp. 94–106). SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446221129.n6
Bavarian, N., Flay, B. R., Ketcham, P. L., Smit, E., Kodama, C., Martin, M., & Saltz, R. F. (2014). Using structural equation modeling to understand prescription stimulant misuse: A test of the theory of triadic influence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 138, 193–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.02.700
Benight, C. C., & Bandura, A. (2004). Social cognitive theory of posttraumatic recovery: The role of perceived self-efficacy. Behaviour research and therapy, 42(10), 1129–1148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2003.08.008
Byrne, B. M. (2006). Structural equation modeling with EQS: Basic concepts, applications, and Programming. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Cerniglia, L., Zoratto, F., Cimino, S., Laviola, G., Ammaniti, M., & Adriani, W. (2017). Internet addiction in adolescence: Neurobiological, psychosocial and clinical issues. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 76, 174–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.12.024
Chang, C. W., Yuan, R., & Chen, J. K. (2018). Social support and depression among chinese adolescents: The mediating roles of self-esteem and self-efficacy. Children and Youth Services Review, 88, 128–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.03.001
Chang, C., Wang, T., Chen, M., Liang, S., Wu, S., & Bai, M. (2021). Factors influencing readiness to change in patients with alcoholic liver disease: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 28(3), 344–355. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpm.12677
Chavarria, J., Stevens, E. B., Jason, L. A., & Ferrari, J. R. (2012). The effects of self-regulation and self-efficacy on substance use abstinence. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 30(4), 422–432. https://doi.org/10.1080/07347324.2012.718960
Chen, S. H., Weng, L. J., Su, Y. J., Wu, H. M., & Yang, P. F. (2003). Development of a chinese internet addiction scale and its psychometric study. Chinese Journal of Psychology, 45, 279–294. https://doi.org/10.1037/t44491-000
Choi, N. G., DiNitto, D. M., & Marti, C. N. (2016). Older marijuana users: Life stressors and perceived social support. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 169, 56–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.10.012
Chun, J. (2015). Determinants of tobacco use among korean female adolescents: Longitudinal test of the theory of triadic influence. Children and Youth Services Review, 50, 83–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2015.01.009
Colley, A., & Maltby, J. (2008). Impact of the internet on our lives: Male and female personal perspectives. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(5), 2005–2013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2007.09.002
Dalisay, F., Buente, W., Benitez, C., Herzog, T. A., & Pokhrel, P. (2019). Adolescent betel nut use in Guam: Beliefs, attitudes and social norms. Addiction Research & Theory, 27(5), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/16066359.2018.1538410
Documet, P. I., Troyer, M. M., & Macia, L. (2019). Social support, health, and health care access among latino immigrant men in an emerging community. Health Education & Behavior, 46(1), 137–145. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198118763870
Dolan, S. L., Martin, R. A., & Rohsenow, D. J. (2008). Self-efficacy for cocaine abstinence: Pretreatment correlates and relationship to outcomes. Addictive Behaviors, 33(5), 675–688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.12.001
Flay, B. (1999). Understanding environmental, situational and intrapersonal risk and protective factors for youth tobacco use: The theory of triadic influence. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 1(1), 111–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/14622299050011911
Flay, B. R., & Petraitis, J. (1994). The theory of triadic influence: A new theory of health behavior with implications for preventive interventions. Advances in Medical Sociology, 4, 19–44.
Gecas, V. (1989). The social psychology of self-efficacy. Annual review of sociology, 15(1), 291–316. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.so.15.080189.001451
Guan, M., & So, J. (2016). Influence of Social Identity on Self-Efficacy Beliefs through Perceived Social Support: A Social Identity Theory Perspective. Communication Studies, 67(5), 588–604. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2016.1239645
Gunning, M., Sussman, S., Rohrbach, L. A., Kniazev, V., & Masagutov, R. (2009). Concurrent predictors of cigarette and Alcohol Use among U.S. and Russian Adolescents. Journal of Drug Education, 39(4), 385–400. https://doi.org/10.2190/DE.39.4.c
Gunuc, S., & Dogan, A. (2013). The relationships between turkish adolescents’ internet addiction, their perceived social support and family activities. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(6), 2197–2207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.04.011
Ha, J. H., Kim, S. Y., Bae, S. C., Bae, S., Kim, H., Sim, M., Lyoo, I. K., & Cho, S. C. (2007). Depression and Internet addiction in adolescents. Psychopathology, 40(6), 424–430. https://doi.org/10.1159/000107426
Hammond, C. J., Mayes, L. C., & Potenza, M. N. (2014). Neurobiology of adolescent substance use and addictive behaviors: Treatment implications. Adolescent medicine: state of the art reviews, 25(1), 15–32.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indices in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Ko, C. H., Yen, J. Y., Chen, C. S., Yeh, Y. C., & Yen, C. F. (2009). Predictive values of psychiatric symptoms for internet addiction in adolescents. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 163(10), 937–943. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2009.159
Lin, M. P. (2018). Preventive education and course material development of Internet addiction and outcome evaluation among junior high school students: based on Social Cognitive Theory Paper presented at the 2018 wrap-up presentation of Department of International Cooperation and Science Education of Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan.
Lin, M. P., Ko, H. C., & Wu, J. Y. (2008). The role of positive/negative outcome expectancy and refusal self-efficacy of internet use on internet addiction among college students in Taiwan. Cyberpsychology & behavior: the impact of the Internet multimedia and virtual reality on behavior and society, 11(4), 451–457. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2007.0121
Lin, M. P., Wu, J. Y. W., You, J., Chang, K. M., Hu, W. H., & Xu, S. (2018a). Association between online and offline social support and internet addiction in a representative sample of senior high school students in Taiwan: The mediating role of self-esteem. Computers in Human Behavior, 84, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.02.007
Lin, M. P., Wu, J. Y., You, J., Hu, W., & Yen, C. (2018b). Prevalence of internet addiction and its risk and protective factors in a representative sample of senior high school students in Taiwan. Journal of Adolescence, 62(1), 38–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.11.004
Mak, K. K., Lai, C. M., Ko, C. H., Chou, C., Kim, D. I., Watanabe, H., & Ho, R. C. (2014). Psychometric properties of the revised Chen Internet Addiction Scale (CIAS-R) in chinese adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42, 1237–1245. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9851-3
Mallinckrodt, B., Abraham, W. T., Wei, M., & Russell, D. W. (2006). Advances in testing the statistical significance of mediation effects. Journal of Counselling Psychology, 53, 372–378. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.53.3.372
McMahon, R. C. (2001). Personality, stress, and social support in cocaine relapse prediction. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 21(2), 77–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0740-5472(01)00187-8
Mo, P. K. H., Chan, V. W. Y., Chan, S. W., & Lau, J. T. F. (2018). The role of social support on emotion dysregulation and internet addiction among chinese adolescents: A structural equation model. Addictive Behaviors, 82, 86–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.01.027
Petraitis, J., Flay, B. R., & Miller, T. Q. (1995). Reviewing theories of adolescent substance use: Organizing pieces in the puzzle. Psychological Bulletin, 117(1), 67–86. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.1.67
Pokhrel, P., Dalisay, F., Pagano, I., Buente, W., Guerrero, E., & Herzog, T. A. (2019). Adolescent tobacco and betel nut use in the US-Affiliated pacific islands: Evidence from Guam. American Journal of Health Promotion, 33(7), 1058–1062. https://doi.org/10.1177/0890117119847868
Rosa, M. R. D. L., & White, M. S. (2011). A review of the role of social support systems in the drug use behavior of Hispanics. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 33(3), 233–240. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2001.10400570
Sabogal, F., Otero-Sabogal, R., Pérez-Stable, E. J., Marín, B. V., & Marin, G. (1989). Perceived self-efficacy to avoid cigarette smoking and addiction: Differences between Hispanics and non-hispanic whites. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 11(2), 136–147. https://doi.org/10.1177/07399863890112003
Shapira, N. A., Goldsmith, T. D., Keck, P. E., Khosla, U. M., & McElroy, S. L. (2000). Psychiatric features of individuals with problematic internet use. Journal of Affective Disorders, 57(1–3), 267–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0165-0327(99)00107-x
Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7, 422–445. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.7.4.422
Solomon, K. E., & Annis, H. M. (1990). Outcome and efficacy expectancy in the prediction of post-treatment drinking behaviour. British Journal of Addiction, 85(5), 659–665. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1990.tb03528.x
Sumstine, S., Cruz, S., Schroeder, C., Takeda, S., & Bavarian, N. (2017). Racial/ethnic variation in mental health correlates of substance use among college students. Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse, 17(2), 94–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332640.2017.1300554
Taiwan Network Information Center (2022). 2022 Taiwan Internet Report Taiwan Network Information Center. https://www.twnic.tw/doc/twrp/202207d.pdf
Tang, J. H., Chen, M. C., Yang, C. Y., Chung, T. Y., & Lee, Y. A. (2016). Personality traits, interpersonal relationships, online social support, and Facebook addiction. Telematics and Informatics, 33(1), 102–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2015.06.003
Taylor, S. E. (2011). Social support: A review. Oxford Handbooks Online. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195342819.013.0009
Tham, S. M., Ellithorpe, M. E., & Meshi, D. (2020). Real-world social support but not in-game social support is related to reduced depression and anxiety associated with problematic gaming. Addictive Behaviors, 106, 106377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106377
Thomas, E. C., Muralidharan, A., Medoff, D., & Drapalski, A. L. (2016). Self-efficacy as a mediator of the relationship between social support and recovery in serious mental illness. Psychiatric rehabilitation journal, 39(4), 352–360. https://doi.org/10.1037/prj0000199
Walker, D. D., Neighbors, C., Rodriguez, L. M., Stephens, R. S., & Roffman, R. A. (2011). Social norms and self-efficacy among heavy using adolescent Marijuana smokers. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 25(4), 727–732. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024958
Wills, T. A., & Cleary, S. D. (1996). How are social support effects mediated? A test with parental support and adolescent substance use. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(5), 937–952. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.5.937
Wombacher, K., Sheff, S. E., & Itrich, N. (2019). Social support for active substance users: A content analysis of r/Drugs. Health Communication, 35(6), 756–765. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2019.1587691
Wu, X. S., Zhang, Z. H., Zhao, F., Wang, W. J., Li, Y. F., Bi, L., Qian, Z. Z., Lu, S. S., Feng, F., Hu, C. Y., Gong, F. F., & Sun, Y. H. (2016). Prevalence of internet addiction and its association with social support and other related factors among adolescents in China. Journal of Adolescence, 52, 103–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.07.012
Yeh, Y. C., Ko, H. C., Wu, J. Y. W., & Cheng, C. P. (2008). Gender differences in relationships of actual and virtual social support to internet addiction mediated through depressive symptoms among college students in Taiwan. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 11(4), 485–487. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2007.0134
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Disclosure of potential conflicts of interest
This study was supported in part by the Ministry of Science and Technology in Taiwan (Grant No. MOST 106-2511-S-003-034-MY2 and MOST 110-2628-H-003-004-SS2). The authors have completed the Elsevier disclosure form and declared that: (i) no financial or other support has been received from any organization with an interest in the work; and (ii) the submission has not been influenced by any other relationships or activities.
Ethics approval
Approval was granted by Research Ethics Committee of National Taiwan Normal University (REC Number: 201708HS001). The questionnaire and methodology in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki.
Informed consent
The research team has obtained written informed consent from all participants and their guardians. Participants were well informed about the purpose of the study before the survey was formally administered.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Tseng, HY., Lin, MP., Lee, YT. et al. Association between online and offline social support and problematic internet use: the mediating role of refusal self-efficacy of internet use. Curr Psychol 43, 4284–4291 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-04629-7
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-04629-7