Abstract
A prevailing idea in the organizational context is that men and women differ in personality traits and leadership styles. Few studies, however, have examined gender differences in managerial behavior. The aim of the present study was to explore the presence of such differences in a sample of public sector employees (N = 678), focusing on personality and two key human resources constructs, namely organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) and adaptive performance. We also compared gender differences among managers with those observed among employees without managerial responsibilities. Finally, we examined whether the attributes that distinguish managers from non-managers are the same for men and women. Mean comparison strategies and the Cohen’s d effect size index were used. The results suggest that male and female public managers have similar leadership profiles in terms of personality, OCBs and adaptive performance. In addition, and despite small gender differences in this respect, it appears that communal traits, such as Creativity or interpersonal OCBs, are becoming increasingly relevant to managerial positions in the public sector, which implies complementarity in the gender roles linked with the behaviors associated with leadership and access to management positions. Our results support both the gender-invariant role demands and the changing leadership roles perspectives and may have implications for selection and promotion policies in public sector organizations.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability statement
The datasets generated during the current study and the questionnaires used are available on this paper’s project page in the Open Science Framework: https://osf.io/ntegx/
References
Abdelmotaleb, M., & Saha, S. K. (2018). Corporate social responsibility, public service motivation and organizational citizenship behavior in the public sector. International Journal of Public Administration, 42(11), 929–939. https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2018.1523189
Abele, A. E. (2003). The dynamics of masculine-agentic and feminine-communal traits: Findings from a prospective study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(4), 768–776. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.4.768
Allen, T. D., & Jang, S. (2018). Gender and organizational citizenship behavior. In P. M. Podsakoff, S. B. Mackenzie, and N. P. Podsakoff (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of organizational citizenship behavior (pp. 221–238). New York: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190219000.013.12
Andersen, J. A. (2010). Public versus private managers: How public and private managers differ in leadership behavior. Public Administration Review, 70(1), 131–141. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2009.02117.x
Andersen, J. A., & Hansson, P. H. (2011). At the end of the road? On differences between women and men in leadership behaviour. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 32(5), 428–441. https://doi.org/10.1108/01437731111146550
Babcock-Roberson, M. E., & Strickland, O. J. (2010). The relationship between charismatic leadership, work engagement, and organizational citizenship behaviors. The Journal of Psychology, Interdisciplinary and Applied, 144, 313–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223981003648336
Balluerka, N., Gómez, J., & Hidalgo, M. D. (2005). The controversy over Null Hypothesis Significance Testing revisited. Methodology, 1, 55–70. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-1881.1.2.55
Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (2014). Nature and use of personality in selection. In Neal Schmitt (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of personnel assessment and selection (pp. 225–251). New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199732579.013.0011
Bellè, N., & Cantarelli, P. (2012). Public service motivation: The state of the art. Paper prepared for the Conference “Reforming the Public Sector: How to make the Difference?” December 2–3, 2010, Rome Italy.
Benet-Martinez, V., & John, O. P. (1998). Los Cinco Grandes across cultures and ethnic groups: Multitrait-multimethod analyses of the Big Five in Spanish and English. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(3), 729–750. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.3.729
Berg, J. M., Wrzesniewski, A., & Dutton, J. E. (2010). Perceiving and responding to challenges in job crafting at different ranks: When proactivity requires adaptivity. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31, 158–186. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.645
Beyan, C., Capozzi, F., Becchio, C., & Murino, V. (2017). Prediction of the leadership style of an emergent leader using audio and visual nonverbal features. IEEE Transactions on Multimedia, 20(2), 441–456. https://doi.org/10.1109/TMM.2017.2740062
Bono, J. E., Shen, W., Yoon, D. J., & Day, D. (2014). Personality and leadership: Looking back, looking ahead. In David V. Day (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of leadership and organizations (pp. 199–218). New York: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199755615.013.042
Calder, B. J. (1977). An attribution theory of leadership. In B. Staw & B. Salancik (Eds.), New Directions in Organizational Behavior (pp. 179–204). St. Clair Press.
Cameron, S. M., & Nadler, J. T. (2013). Gender roles and organizational citizenship behaviors: Effects on managerial evaluations. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 28(7), 380–399. https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-10-2012-0074
Carpenter, N. C., Berry, C. M., & Houston, L. (2014). A meta-analytic comparison of self-reported and other-reported organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 35(4), 547–574. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1909
Chamorro-Premuzic, T. (2013). Why do so many incompetent men become leaders? Harvard Business Review, 22. Retrieved from: https://hbr.org/2013/08/why-do-so-many-incompetent-men
Charbonnier-Voirin, A. (2013). L’influence des traits de personnalité sur les composantes de la performance adaptative des salariés. Revue De Gestion Des Ressources Humaines, 88(2), 17–32. https://doi.org/10.3917/grhu.088.0017
Charbonnier-Voirin, A., El Akremi, A., & Vandenberghe, C. (2010). A multilevel model of transformational leadership and adaptive performance and the moderating role of climate for innovation. Group & Organization Management, 35(6), 699–726. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601110390833
Charbonnier-Voirin, A., & Roussel, P. (2012). Adaptive performance: A new scale to measure individual performance in organizations. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 29(3), 280–293. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.232
Chiaburu, D. S., Oh, I. S., Wang, J., & Stoverink, A. C. (2017). A bigger piece of the pie: The relative importance of affiliative and change-oriented citizenship and task performance in predicting overall job performance. Human Resource Management Review, 27(1), 97–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2016.09.006
Choudhury, P., Wang, D., Carlson, N. A., & Khanna, T. (2019). Machine learning approaches to facial and text analysis: Discovering CEO oral communication styles. Strategic Management Journal, 40(11), 1705–1732. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.3067
Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (2019). Constructing validity: New developments in creating objective measuring instruments. Psychological Assessment, 31(12), 1412–1427. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000626
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. LEA. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203771587
Conway, J. M., & Lance, C. E. (2010). What reviewers should expect from authors regarding common method bias in organizational research. Journal of Business and Psychology, 25(3), 325–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-010-9181-6
Dávila, M. C., & Finkelstein, M. A. (2010). Predicting organizational citizenship behavior from the functional analysis and role identity perspectives: Further evidence in Spanish employees. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 13(1), 277–283. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1138741600003851
de Fruyt, F., & Mervielde, I. (1999). RIASEC types and big five traits as predictors of employment status and nature of employment. Personnel Psychology, 52(3), 701–727. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1999.tb00177.x
Demerouti, E., Xanthopoulou, D., Tsaousis, I., & Bakker, A. B. (2014). Disentangling task and contextual performance: A multitrait-multimethod approach. Journal of Personnel Psychology, 13(2), 59–69. https://doi.org/10.1027/1866-5888/a000104
DeRue, D. S., Ashford, S. J., & Cotton, N. C. (2009). Assuming the mantle: Unpacking the process by which individuals internalize a leader identity. In L. M. Roberts & J. E. Dutton (Eds.), Exploring positive identities and organizations: Building a theoretical and research foundation (pp. 217–236). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Doornenbal, B. M., Spisak, B. R., & van der Laken, P. A. (2021). Opening the black box: Uncovering the leader trait paradigm through machine learning. The Leadership Quarterly, 101515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2021.101515
Dorsey, D. W., Cortina, J. M., & Luchman, J. (2010). Adaptive and citizenship-related behaviors at work. In J. L. Farr and N. T. Tippins (Eds.), Handbook of personnel selection (pp. 463–487). New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315690193-21
Eagly, A. H. (2007). Female leadership advantage and disadvantage: Resolving the contradictions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00326.x
Eagly, A. H., Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C., & van Engen, M. L. (2003). Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men. Psychological Bulletin, 129(4), 569–591. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.4.569
Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109, 573–598. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-295X.109.3.573
Eagly, A. H., Nater, C., Miller, D. I., Kaufmann, M., & Sczesny, S. (2020). Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of US public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018. American Psychologist, 75(3), 301. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000494
Eden, D., & Leviatan, U. (1975). Implicit leadership theory as a determinant of the factor structure underlying supervisory behavior scales. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 736–741. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.60.6.736
European Parliament. (2021). The Gender Gap in the EU’s Public Employment and Leadership. Mapping promising measures for gender equality and equal opportunities in the EU27. Retrieved from: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2021/689276/IPOL_STU(2021)689276_EN.pdf
Fors Connolly, F., Goossen, M., & Hjerm, M. (2020). Does gender equality cause gender differences in values? Reassessing the gender-equality-personality paradox. Sex Roles, 83(1), 101–113. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-01097-x
Fronczyk, K. (2019). Congruence and measurement invariance of self-report and informant-ratings of the Big Five dimensions. Personality and Individual Differences, 139, 7–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.10.036
Gardiner, M., & Tiggemann, M. (1999). Gender differences in leadership style, job stress and mental health in male-and female-dominated industries. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 72(3), 301–315. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317999166699
Gartzia, L., & Baniandrés, J. (2019). How feminine is the female advantage? Incremental validity of gender traits over leader sex on employees’ responses. Journal of Business Research, 99, 125–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.12.062
Gartzia, L., & van Engen, M. (2012). Are (male) leaders “feminine” enough? Gender in Management: An International Journal., 27(5), 296–314. https://doi.org/10.1108/17542411211252624
Gartzia, L., & Van Knippenberg, D. (2016). Too masculine, too bad: Effects of communion on leaders’ promotion of cooperation. Group & Organization Management, 41(4), 458–490. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601115583580
Gensowski, M., Gørtz, M., & Schurer, S. (2021). Inequality in personality over the life cycle. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 184, 46–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2021.01.018
Georgellis, Y., & Sankae, N. (2016). The personality of managers in Britain: Gender and sector differences. Evidence-Based HRM, 4(1), 67–80. https://doi.org/10.1108/EBHRM-05-2015-0015
Gorostiaga, A., Balluerka, N., & Rodriguez-Lopez, A. (2022). Assessment of Adaptive Performance and its Role as a Moderator of the Relationship Between Person-Organization Fit and Organizational Citizenship Behaviors. Psicothema, 34(1), 84–94. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2021.310
Guyot, J. F. (1962). Government bureaucrats are different. Public Administration Review, 22(4), 195–202. https://doi.org/10.2307/973940
Hajloo, N., Sobhi Gharamaleki, N., & Emami, F. (2012). The study of relationship between job stress, creativity and achievement motivation with nurses organizational commitment. Journal of Psychological Studies, 8(3), 89–106. https://doi.org/10.22051/PSY.2012.1724
Hansen, J. R., & Villadsen, A. R. (2010). Comparing public and private managers’ leadership styles: Understanding the role of job context. International Public Management Journal, 13(3), 247–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/10967494.2010.503793
Hill, L. A. (1992). Becoming a manager: Mastery of a new identity (No. 658.4 H647b). Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Hill, L. A. (2007). Becoming the boss. Harvard Business Review, 85(1), 48–57.
Hooijberg, R., & Choi, J. (2001). The impact of organizational characteristics on leadership effectiveness models: An examination of leadership in a private and a public sector organization. Administration & Society, 33(4), 403–431. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095399701334002
Huang, J. L., Ryan, A. M., Zabel, K. L., & Palmer, A. (2014). Personality and adaptive performance at work: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99(1), 162–179. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034285
Hyde, J. S. (2014). Gender similarities and differences. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 373–398. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115057
Ingrams, A. (2020). Organizational citizenship behavior in the public and private sectors: A multilevel test of public service motivation and traditional antecedents. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 40(2), 222–244. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371X18800372
Jimenez Asensio, R. (2019). El futuro de los juristas en la administración pública. Retrieved from: https://rafaeljimenezasensio.com/2019/03/24/el-futuro-de-los-juristas-en-la-administracion-publica/
John, O. P., Donahue, E. M., & Kentle, R. L. (1991). The Big Five inventory—versions 4a and 54. University of California.
Judge, T. A., Bono, J. E., Ilies, R., & Gerhardt, M. W. (2002). Personality and leadership: A qualitative and quantitative review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(4), 765–780. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.4.765
Judge, T. A., Higgins, C. A., Thoresen, C. J., & Barrick, M. R. (1999). The big five personality traits, general mental ability, and career success across the life span. Personnel Psychology, 52(3), 621–652. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1999.tb00174.x
Judge, T. A., Piccolo, R. F., & Kosalka, T. (2009). The bright and dark sides of leader traits: A review and theoretical extension of the leader trait paradigm. The Leadership Quarterly, 20(6), 855–875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.09.004
Jundt, D. K., Shoss, M. K., & Huang, J. L. (2015). Individual adaptive performance in organizations: A review. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 36(S1), 53–71. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1955
Kaiser, T., Del Giudice, M., & Booth, T. (2019). Global sex differences in personality: Replication with an open online dataset. Journal of Personality, 88(3), 415–429. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12500
Kajonius, P. J., & Johnson, J. (2018). Sex differences in 30 facets of the five factor model of personality in the large public (N = 320,128). Personality and Individual Differences, 129, 126–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.03.026
Kajonius, P., & Mac Giolla, E. (2017). Personality traits across countries: Support for similarities rather than differences. PLoS ONE, 12(6), e0179646. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0179646
Kidder, D. L., & Parks, J. M. (2001). The good soldier: who is s (he)? Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior, 22(8), 939–959. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.119
Klemm, W. R. (2017) Leadership and creativity. In J. Marques and S. Dhiman (Eds.), Leadership Today. Springer Texts in Business and Economics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-31036-7
Koenig, A. M., Eagly, A. H., Mitchell, A. A., & Ristikari, T. (2011). Are leader stereotypes masculine? A meta-analysis of three research paradigms. Psychological Bulletin, 137(4), 616–642. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023557
Latham, G. P., & Kinne, S. B. (1974). Improving job performance through training in goal setting. Journal of Applied Psychology, 59(2), 187–191. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0036530
Lee, K., & Allen, N. J. (2002). Organizational citizenship behavior and workplace deviance: The role of affect and cognitions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(1), 131–142. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.1.131
Lombardo, E. (2016). Gender equality policies in Spain–update. Study for the FEMM Committee, European Union, Brussels. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2016/583112/IPOL_STU(2016)583112_EN.pdf
Lounsbury, J. W., Sundstrom, E. D., Gibson, L. W., Loveland, J. M., & Drost, A. W. (2016). Core personality traits of managers. Journal of Managerial Psychology., 31(2), 434–450. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-03-2014-0092
Mac Giolla, E., & Kajonius, P. J. (2019). Sex differences in personality are larger in gender equal countries: Replicating and extending a surprising finding. International Journal of Psychology, 54(6), 705–711. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12529
McGrath, R. E., & Meyer, G. J. (2006). When effect sizes disagree: The case of r and d. Psychological Methods, 11(4), 386–401. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.11.4.386
Mõttus, R., Allik, J., & Realo, A. (2020). Do self-reports and informant-ratings measure the same personality constructs? European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 36(2), 289–295. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000516
Ng, T. W., Lam, S. S., & Feldman, D. C. (2016). Organizational citizenship behavior and counterproductive work behavior: Do males and females differ? Journal of Vocational Behavior, 93, 11–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2015.12.005
Niess, C., & Zacher, H. (2015). Openness to experience as a predictor and outcome of upward job changes into managerial and professional positions. PLoS ONE, 10(6), e0131115. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0131115
O’Connell, D. J., McNeely, E., & Hall, D. T. (2008). Unpacking personality adaptability at work. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 14, 248–259. https://doi.org/10.1177/1071791907311005
Palaiou, K., & Furnham, A. (2014). Are bosses unique? Personality facet differences between CEOs and staff in five work sectors. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 66(3), 173–196. https://doi.org/10.1037/cpb0000010
Paterson, T. A., Harms, P. D., Steel, P., & Credé, M. (2016). An assessment of the magnitude of effect sizes: Evidence from 30 years of meta-analysis in management. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 23(1), 66–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051815614321
Paustian-Underdahl, S. C., Walker, L. S., & Woehr, D. J. (2014). Gender and perceptions of leadership effectiveness: A meta-analysis of contextual moderators. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99(6), 1129–1145. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036751
Perry, J. L., Hondeghem, A., & Wise, L. R. (2010). Revisiting the motivational bases of public service: Twenty years of research and an agenda for the future. Public Administration Review, 70(5), 681–690. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2010.02196.x
Piccolo, R. F., Buengeler, C., & Judge, T. A. (2018). Leadership [is] organizational citizenship behavior. In P. M. Podsakoff and S. B. McKenzie (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of organizational citizenship behavior. New York: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190219000.013.39
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Paine, J. B., & Bachrach, D. G. (2000). Organizational citizenship behaviours: A critical review of the theoretical and empirical literature and suggestions for future research. Journal of Management, 26, 513–563. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920630002600307
Rainey, H. G. (1982). Reward Preferences among Public and Private Managers: In Search of the Service Ethic. American Review of Public Administration, 16(4), 288–302. https://doi.org/10.1177/027507408201600402
Rainey, H. G., & Bozeman, B. (2000). Comparing public and private organizations: Empirical research and the power of the a priori. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 10(2), 447–470. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jpart.a024276
Sackett, P. R., & Lievens, F. (2008). Personnel selection. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 419–450. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093716
Schein, V. E. (1975). Relationships between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics among female managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60(3), 340–344. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076637
Seibert, S. E., & Kraimer, M. L. (2001). The five-factor model of personality and career success. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 58(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.2000.1757
Shim, D. C., & Faerman, S. (2017). Government employees’ organizational citizenship behavior: The impacts of public service motivation, organizational identification, and subjective OCB norms. International Public Management Journal, 20(4), 531–559. https://doi.org/10.1080/10967494.2015.1037943
Smith, A. E. (2015). On the edge of a glass cliff: Women in leadership in public organizations. Public Administration Quarterly, 39(3), 484–517. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24773425
Smith, M., & Smith, P. (2005). Testing people at work: Competencies in psychometric testing. Malden, MA.: Wiley-Blackwell.
Statham, A. (1987). The gender model revisited: Differences in the management styles of men and women. Sex Roles, 16(7), 409–430. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00289552
`t Hart, P. T. (2014). Understanding public leadership. Macmillan International Higher Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-45057-9
Truninger, M., Ruderman, M. N., Clerkin, C., Fernandez, K. C., & Cancro, D. (2021). Sounds like a leader: An ascription–actuality approach to examining leader emergence and effectiveness. The Leadership Quarterly, 32(5), 101420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2020.101420
Van Wart, M. (2013). Administrative leadership theory: A reassessment after 10 years. Public Administration, 91(3), 521–543. https://doi.org/10.1111/padm.12017
Van Witteloostuijn, A., Esteve, M., & Boyne, G. (2016). Public sector motivation ad fonts: Personality traits as antecedents of the motivation to serve the public interest. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 27(1), 20–35. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/muw027
Wilkinson, L., & the Task Force on Statistical Inference (1999). Statistical methods in Psychology journals: Guidelines and explanations. American Psychologist, 54, 594-604. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.8.594
Wille, B., Wiernik, B. M., Vergauwe, J., Vrijdags, A., & Trbovic, N. (2018). Personality characteristics of male and female executives: Distinct pathways to success? Journal of Vocational Behavior, 106, 220–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2018.02.005
Winsborough, D. L., & Sambath, V. (2013). Not like us: An investigation into the personalities of New Zealand CEOs. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 65(2), 87–107. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033128
Yarkoni, T., & Westfall, J. (2017). Choosing prediction over explanation in psychology: Lessons from machine learning. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(6), 1100–1122. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617693393
Ye, J., Cardon, M. S., & Rivera, E. (2012). A mutuality perspective of psychological contracts regarding career development and job security. Journal of Business Research, 65(3), 294–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2011.03.006
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
The authors of this manuscript provide the following information and statements related to the compliance with ethical standards, author contributions and competing interests:
• All the authors mentioned in the manuscript have agreed for authorship, read and approved the manuscript, and given consent for submission and subsequent publication of the manuscript.
• The order of authorship was agreed by all named authors prior to submission.
• All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Alexander Rodríguez, Nekane Balluerka and Arantxa Gorostiaga. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Alexander Rodríguez, Nekane Balluerka, Arantxa Gorostiaga and Imanol Ulacia, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript.
• The corresponding author, Alexander Rodriguez, takes full ownership for all the communication related to the manuscript.
• No funding was received to assist with the preparation of this manuscript.
• The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
• The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.
• All authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.
• The authors have no financial or proprietary interests in any material discussed in this article.
• All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the Ethics Committee for Research Involving Humans of the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU).
• Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
• The manuscript has not been submitted or published anywhere.
• The manuscript will not be submitted elsewhere until the editorial process is completed.
Conflicting Interests
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Rodríguez-López, A., Balluerka, N., Gorostiaga, A. et al. Personality traits and job performance among public sector managers: The role of gender. Curr Psychol 42, 25353–25366 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03634-6
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03634-6