Abstract
The Cognitive Avoidance Questionnaire (CAQ) is a self-reported measure relating to multidimensional cognitive avoidance. Prior research has supported its correlated five-factor model, however, the tenability of a bifactor model and its measurement invariance have not been examined. With a Chinese adolescent sample (N = 734), a bifactor model of the CAQ, comprising a general cognitive avoidance and five orthogonal urge-related domain-specific factors, was supported. Multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis showed strict measurement invariance (including configural, metric, scalar, and error invariances) across genders but only configural invariance across grades. Predominately the general factor was positively correlated with worry, depression, anxiety, and stress. This study suggests that general and distinct factors should be considered to properly contextualize cognitive avoidance in adolescents.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Baldessarini, R. J., Innamorati, M., Erbuto, D., Serafini, G., Fiorillo, A., Amore, M., Girardi, P., & Pompili, M. (2017). Differential associations of affective temperaments and diagnosis of major affective disorders with suicidal behavior. Journal of Affective Disorders, 210, 19–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.12.003
Bardeen, J. R., & Fergus, T. A. (2016). The interactive effect of cognitive fusion and experiential avoidance on anxiety, depression, stress and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 5(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2016.02.002
Berghoff, C. R., Ritzert, T. R., & Forsyth, J. P. (2018). Value-guided action: Within-day and lagged relations of experiential avoidance, mindful awareness, and cognitive fusion in a non-clinical sample. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 10, 19–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2018.07.005
Bortolon, C., Lopes, B., Capdevielle, D., Macioce, V., & Raffard, S. (2019). The roles of cognitive avoidance, rumination and negative affect in the association between abusive supervision in the workplace and non-clinical paranoia in a sample of workers working in France. Psychiatry Research, 271, 581–589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.11.065
Donovan, C. L., Holmes, M. C., & Farrell, L. J. (2016). Investigation of the cognitive variables associated with worry in children with Generalised Anxiety Disorder and their parents. Journal of Affective Disorders, 192, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.12.003
Donovan, C. L., Holmes, M. C., Farrell, L. J., & Hearn, C. S. (2017). Thinking about worry: Investigation of the cognitive components of worry in children. Journal of Affective Disorders, 208, 230–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.09.061
Dugas, M. J., Francis, K., & Bouchard, S. (2009). Cognitive Behavioural Therapy and Applied Relaxation for Generalized Anxiety Disorder: A Time Series Analysis of Change in Worry and Somatic Anxiety. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 38(1), 29–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/16506070802473221
Dugas, M. J., Gagnon, F., Ladouceur, R., & Freeston, M. H. (1998). Generalized anxiety disorder: A preliminary test of a conceptual model. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36(2), 215–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(97)00070-3
Dugas, M. J., Marchand, A., & Ladouceur, R. (2005). Further validation of a cognitive-behavioral model of generalized anxiety disorder: Diagnostic and symptom specificity. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 19(3), 329–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2004.02.002
Fritz, C. O., Morris, P. E., & Richler, J. J. (2012). Effect size estimates: Current use, calculations, and interpretation. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 141(1), 2–18. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024338
Fergus, T. A., & Bardeen, J. R. (2019). The Metacognitions Questionnaire 30: An Examination of a Bifactor Model and Measurement Invariance Among Men and Women in a Community Sample. Assessment, 26, 223–234. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191116685807
Gignac, G. E. (2016). The higher-order model imposes a proportionality constraint: That is why the bifactor model tends to fit better. Intelligence, 55, 57–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2016.01.006
Gosselin, P., Langlois, F., Freeston, M. H., Ladouceur, R., Laberge, M., & Lemay, D. (2007). Cognitive variables related to worry among adolescents: Avoidance strategies and faulty beliefs about worry. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45(2), 225–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2006.03.001
Hayes, S., Luoma, J., Bond, F., Masuda, A., & Lillis, J. (2006). Acceptance and Committment Therapy: Model, process and outcomes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2005.06.006
Henry, J., & Crawford, J. (2005). The short-form version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21): Construct validity and normative data in a large non-clinical sample. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44, 227–239. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466505X29657
Hirsch, C. R., Krahé, C., Whyte, J., Krzyzanowski, H., Meeten, F., Norton, S., & Mathews, A. (2021). Internet-delivered interpretation training reduces worry and anxiety in individuals with generalized anxiety disorder: A randomized controlled experiment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 89(7), 575–589. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000660
Hong, J. S., Kim, S. M., Jung, H. Y., Kang, K. D., Min, K. J., & Han, D. H. (2017). Cognitive avoidance and aversive cues related to tobacco in male smokers. Addictive Behaviors, 73, 158–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.05.003
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Hur, J., Heller, W., Kern, J. L., & Berenbaum, H. (2017). A Bi-Factor Approach to Modeling the Structure of Worry and Rumination. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology, 8(3), 252–264. https://doi.org/10.5127/jep.057116
Khojasteh, J., & Lo, W.-J. (2015). Investigating the Sensitivity of Goodness-of-Fit Indices to Detect Measurement Invariance in a Bifactor Model. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 22(4), 531–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2014.937791
Kirk, A., Meyer, J. M., Whisman, M. A., Deacon, B. J., & Arch, J. J. (2019). Safety behaviors, experiential avoidance, and anxiety: A path analysis approach. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 64, 9–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2019.03.002
Latorre, J. M., Nieto, M., Rosi, L., Font, M. A., Heras, J., & Ricarte, J. J. (2020). Cognitive Avoidance Questionnaire: Factor structure and psychometric properties. Annals of Psychology, 36(3), 457–467. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.397711
Lovibond, S. H., & Lovibond, P. F. (1995). Manual for the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (2nd ed.). Psychology Foundation.
Magee, J. C., Harden, K., & Teachman, B. (2012). Psychopathology and thought suppression: A quantitative review. Clinical Psychology Review, 32(3), 189–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.01.001
Marcotte-Beaumier, G., Malivoire, B. L., Koerner, N., & Ovanessian, M. M. (2021). The Role of Overt and Covert Avoidance Strategies in Generalized Anxiety Disorder Symptoms and Fear of Emotion. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-021-09929-5
McEvoy, P. M., Moulds, M. L., & Mahoney, A. E. (2013). Mechanisms driving pre-and post-stressor repetitive negative thinking: Metacognitions, cognitive avoidance, and thought control. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 44(1), 84–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2012.07.011
Meyer, T. J., Miller, M. L., Metzger, R. L., & Borkovec, T. D. (1990). Development and validation of the penn state worry questionnaire. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28(6), 487–495. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(90)90135-6
Millgram, Y., Sheppes, G., Kalokerinos, E. K., Kuppens, P., & Tamir, M. (2019). Do the ends dictate the means in emotion regulation? Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 148(1), 80–96. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000477
Muthén, B. (1984). A general structural equation model with dichotomous, ordered categorical, and continuous latent variable indicators. Psychometrika, 49, 115–132. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02294210
Olatunji, B. O., Moretz, M. W., & Zlomke, K. R. (2010). Linking cognitive avoidance and GAD symptoms: The mediating role of fear of emotion. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48(5), 435–441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2009.11.014
Olatunji, B., Ebesutani, C., & Abramowitz, J. (2017). Examination of a Bifactor Model of Obsessive-Compulsive Symptom Dimensions. Assessment, 24, 45–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191115601207
Olivier, E., Morin, A. J. S., Tardif-Grenier, K., Archambault, I., Dupéré, V., & Hébert, C. (2022). Profiles of Anxious and Depressive Symptoms Among Adolescent Boys and Girls: Associations with Coping Strategies. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 51(3), 570–584. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-022-01572-x
Orsolini, L., Latini, R., Pompili, M., Serafini, G., Volpe, U., Vellante, F., Fornaro, M., Valchera, A., Tomasetti, C., Fraticelli, S., Alessandrini, M., La Rovere, R., Trotta, S., Martinotti, G., Di Giannantonio, M., & De Berardis, D. (2020). Understanding the Complex of Suicide in Depression: from Research to Clinics. Psychiatry Investigation, 17(3), 207–221. https://doi.org/10.30773/pi.2019.0171
Powell, D. A., & Schafer, W. D. (2001). The Robustness of the Likelihood Ratio Chi-Square Test for Structural Equation Models: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 26(1), 105–132. https://doi.org/10.3102/10769986026001105
Quigley, L., Wen, A., & Dobson, K. S. (2017). Avoidance and depression vulnerability: An examination of avoidance in remitted and currently depressed individuals. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 97, 183–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2017.07.015
Reise, S. (2012). The rediscovery of bifactor measurement Models. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 47(5), 667–696. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2012.715555
Rodriguez, A., Reise, S., & Haviland, M. G. (2016a). Applying Bifactor Statistical Indices in the Evaluation of Psychological Measures. Journal of Personality Assessment, 98(3), 223–237. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2015.1089249
Rodriguez, A., Reise, S. P., & Haviland, M. G. (2016b). Evaluating Bifactor Models: Calculating and Interpreting Statistical Indices. Psychological Methods, 21(2), 137. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000045
Rosebrock, L., Hall, K. A., Rando, A., Pineles, S. L., & Liverant, G. I. (2019). Rumination and Its Relationship with Thought Suppression in Unipolar Depression and Comorbid PTSD. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 43, 226–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-018-9935-4
Schmitt, N., & Kuljanin, G. (2008). Measurement invariance: Review of practice and implications. Human Resource Management Review, 18(4), 210–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2008.03.003
Scotta, A. V., Cortez, M. V., & Miranda, A. R. (2022). Insomnia is associated with worry, cognitive avoidance and low academic engagement in Argentinian university students during the COVID-19 social isolation. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 27(1), 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2020.1869796
Sexton, K. A., & Dugas, M. J. (2008). The Cognitive Avoidance Questionnaire: Validation of the English translation. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.04.005
Sexton, K. A., & Dugas, M. J. (2009). An Investigation of Factors Associated with Cognitive Avoidance in Worry. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 33(2), 150–162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-007-9177-3
Shakeri, J., Farnia, V., Jouybari, T. A., Salemi, S., Rahami, B., Soltani, B., Moradinazar, M., & Alikhani, M. (2021). Cognitive avoidance as a coping mechanism in patients with opioid use disorders (OUDs): A cross-sectional study in Western Iran. Journal of Substance Use, 26(6), 603–607. https://doi.org/10.1080/14659891.2021.1875066
Stapinski, L. A., Abbott, M. J., & Rapee, R. M. (2010). Evaluating the cognitive avoidance model of generalised anxiety disorder: Impact of worry on threat appraisal, perceived control and anxious arousal. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48(10), 1032–1040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2010.07.005
Tsaousis, I., & Kazi, S. (2013). Factorial invariance and latent mean differences of scores on trait emotional intelligence across gender and age. Personality and Individual Differences, 54(2), 169–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.08.016
Uğur, E., Kaya, Ç., & Tanhan, A. (2021). Psychological inflexibility mediates the relationship between fear of negative evaluation and psychological vulnerability. Current Psychology, 40(9), 4265–4277. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01074-8
Vandenberg, R. J., & Lance, C. E. (2000). A Review and Synthesis of the Measurement Invariance Literature: Suggestions, Practices, and Recommendations for Organizational Research. Organizational Research Methods, 5(1), 139–158. https://doi.org/10.1177/109442810031002
Waugh, C. E., Shing, E. Z., & Furr, R. M. (2020). Not all disengagement coping strategies are created equal: Positive distraction, but not avoidance, can be an adaptive coping strategy for chronic life stressors. Anxiety Stress and Coping, 33(5), 511–529. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2020.1755820
Wenzlaff, R. M., & Wegner, D. M. (2000). Thought Suppression. Annual Review of Psychology, 51(1), 59–91. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.59
Wells, A. (2010). Metacognitive Theory and Therapy for Worry and Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Review and Status. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.5127/jep.007910
Williams, A. D., & Moulds, M. L. (2007). Cognitive avoidance of intrusive memories: Recall vantage perspective and associations with depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45(6), 1141–1153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2006.09.005
Wilson, C., Budd, B., Chernin, R., King, H., Leddy, A., Maclennan, F., & Mallandain, I. (2011). The role of meta-cognition and parenting in adolescent worry. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25(1), 71–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.08.005
Xiao, H., Lin, R., Wu, Q., Shen, S., & Yan, Y. (2020). Negative Problems Orientation Questionnaire for Chinese Adolescents: Bifactor Model and Measurement Invariance. Frontiters in Psychology, 11, 608676. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.608676
Yung, Y.-F., Thissen, D., & McLeod, L. D. (1999). On the relationship between the higher-order factor model and the hierarchical factor model. Psychometrika, 64(2), 113–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02294531
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by a funding How does the influence of cognitive avoidance on adolescent sleep quality and the intervention paths (影响青少年睡眠质量的认知回避机制及干预路径研究, ID :FJJKCJ20-311) , which was awarded from Fujian Institute of Education Research, China
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Ron-Mao Lin conceived and designed this study, Shan-Shan, Xie and Sai-Li Shen collected and analysed the data, Xie and Shen written and revised the manuscript. Xie, Shen, Xiong, Chen, Shen and Lin revised the manuscript; Lin were responsible for the study.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Xie, SS., Shen, SL., Xiong, XX. et al. Testing a bifactor model and measurement invariance of the cognitive avoidance questionnaire in Chinese adolescents. Curr Psychol 42, 19903–19914 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03141-8
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03141-8