Abstract
Secrecy has been found to increase conformity, indicating its implication for advice-taking. Based on self-protection perspective, across six studies, the present research explores secrecy’s influence on advice taking and examines the mediation of the self-protection motivation to avoid social attention and the moderation of evaluation sensitivity and importance of secrets. Study1a and Study 1b show that decision-makers with secret(s) are more likely to take advice, and motivation to avoid social attention plays a mediating role. Study 2a and 2b demonstrate that judges with high evaluation sensitivity are more likely to take advice, and evaluation sensitivity also moderated the effect of secrecy on motivation to avoid social attention and on advice taking. Study 3a and 3b demonstrate the moderating effect of secret importance; judges with secrets of high importance are more likely to take the advice, and the importance of secrets as a moderator in the effect of secrecy on motivation to avoid social attention and on advice taking.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available in the OSF repository with the identifier [https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/W9YZ6; https://osf.io/w9yz6/], relative appendixes are also available on the same link.
References
Ayduk, O., May, D., Downey, G., & Higgins, E. T. (2003). Tactical differences in coping with rejection sensitivity: The role of prevention pride. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(4), 435–448. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167202250911
Afifi, W. A., & Guerrero, L. K. (2000). Motivations underlying topic avoidance close relationships. In S. Petronio (Ed.), Balancing the secrets of private disclosures (pp. 165–179). Erlbaum.
Alden, L. E., & Bieling, P. (1998). Interpersonal consequences of the pursuit of safety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36(1), 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(97)00072-7
Bouman, T. K. (2003). Intra- and interpersonal consequences of experimentally induced concealment. Behavior Research and Therapy, 41(8), 959–968. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(02)00175-4
Brislin, R. W. (1970). Back-translation for cross-cultural research. Journal of Cross- Culture Psychology, 1(3), 185–216. https://doi.org/10.1177/135910457000100301
Chou, M. L. (1996). Protective and acquisitive face orientation: A person by situation approach to face dynamic in social interaction [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Hong Kong. https://doi.org/10.5353/th_b3123570
Cohen, G. L., & Sherman, D. K. (2014). The psychology of change: Self-affirmation and social psychological intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 333–371. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115137
Critcher, C. R., & Ferguson, M. J. (2014). The cost of keeping it hidden: Decomposing concealment reveals what makes it depleting. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(2), 721–735. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033468
Detert, J. R., & Edmondson, A. C. (2011). Implicit voice theories: Taken-for-granted rules of self-censorship at work. Academy of Management Journal, 54(3), 461–488. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMJ.2011.61967925
DeSimone, J. A., & Harms, P. (2018). Dirty data: The effects of screening respondents who provide low-quality data in survey research. Journal of Business and Psychology, 33, 559–577. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-017-9514-9
Dinev, T., Xu, H., & Smith, H. J. (2009). Information privacy values, beliefs and attitudes: An empirical analysis of web 2.0 privacy. In proceedings of 2009 42nd Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1109/HICSS.2009.255
Dijksterhuis, A., Bargh, J. A., & Miedema, J. (2000). Of men and mackerels: Attention and automatic behavior. In H. Bless & J. P. Forgas (Eds.), Subjective experience in social cognition and behavior (pp. 36–51). Psychology Press.
Duan, J., Xia, X., & van Swol, L. M. (2018). Emoticons’ influence on advice taking. Computers in Human Behavior, 79, 53–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.10.030
Duan, J., Xu, Y., & van Swol, L. M. (2021). Influence of self-concept clarity on advice seeking and utilization. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 24, 435–444. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajsp.12435
Echterhoff, G., Higgins, E. T., & Levine, J. M. (2009). Shared reality: Experiencing commonality with others" inner states about the world. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4(5), 496–521. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01161.x
Gilbert, P. (2001). Evolution and social anxiety: The role of attraction, social competition, and social hierarchies. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 24(4), 723–751. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0193-953X(05)70260-4
Gino, F., Brooks, A. W., & Schweitzer, M. E. (2012). Anxiety, advice, and the ability to discern: Feeling anxious motivates individuals to seek and use advice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(3), 497–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026413
Griskevicius, V., Goldstein, N. J., Mortensen, C. R., Cialdini, R. B., & Kenrick, D. T. (2006). Going along versus going alone: When fundamental motives facilitate strategic (non)conformity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(2), 281–294. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.2.281
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford press.
He, D., Wang, Y., Jiang, Y., & Gorn, G. (2017). 16-H: Secret keeping spurs conformity consumption. In A. Gneezy, V. Griskevicius, and P. Williams (Eds.) Advances in Consumer Research (Vol. 45, p. 1032). Association for Consumer Research.
Hepper, E. G., Gramzow, R. H., & Sedikides, C. (2010). Individual differences in self-enhancement and self-protection strategies: An integrative analysis. Journal of Personality, 78(2), 781–814. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00633.x
Hsu, T., & Lee, M. (2003). The refinement of measuring consumer involvement-an empirical study. Competitiveness Review, 13(1), 56–65. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb046452
Jiang, Y., & Kleitman, S. (2015). Metacognition and motivation: Links between confidence, self-protection and self-enhancement. Learning and Individual Differences, 37, 222–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2014.11.025
Kahn, W. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of Management Journal, 33(4), 692–724. https://doi.org/10.2307/256287
Kawamura, K. Y., & Frost, R. O. (2004). Self-concealment as a mediator in the relationship between perfectionism and psychological distress. Cognitive Therapy & Research, 28(2), 183–191. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:COTR.0000021539.48926.c1
Kelly, A. E., & Yip, J. J. (2006). Is keeping a secret or being a secretive person linked to psychological symptoms? Journal of Personality, 74(5), 1349–1369. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00413.x
Kotov, R., Watson, D., Robles, J. P., & Schmid, N. B. (2007). Personality traits and anxiety symptoms: The multilevel trait predictor model. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45(7), 1485–1503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2006.11.011
Lane, D. J., & Wegner, D. M. (1995). The cognitive consequences of secrecy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(2), 237–253. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.2.237
Larson, D. G., & Chastain, R. L. (1990). Self-concealment: Conceptualization, measurement, and health implications. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9(4), 439–455. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1990.9.4.439
Leary, M. R., & Kowalski, R. M. (1990). Impression management: A literature review and two-component model. Psychological Bulletin, 107(1), 34–47. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.107.1.34
Lee, H. W., Choi, J. N., & Kim, S. (2018). Does gender diversity help teams constructively manage status conflict? an evolutionary perspective of status conflict, team psychological safety, and team creativity. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 144, 187–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2017.09.005
MacDonald, G., & Leary, M. R. (2005). Why does social exclusion hurt? The relationship between social and physical pain. Psychological Bulletin, 131(2), 202–223. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.2.202
McDonald, R. I., Salerno, J. M., Greenaway, K. H., & Slepian, M. L. (2020). Motivated secrecy: Politics, relationships, and regrets. Motivation Science, 6(1), 61–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000139
Maas, J., Wismeijer, A. A. J., Van Assen, M. A. L. M., & Aquarius, A. E. A. M. (2012). Is it bad to have secrets? Cognitive preoccupation as a toxic element of secrecy. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 12(1), 23–37.
MacGeorge, E., & van Swol, L. M. (2018). Advice: Communication with Consequence. In E. L. MacGeorge & L. M. Van Swol (Eds.) Oxford Handbook of Advice, Oxford University Press.
Mallinson, D. J., & Hatemi, P. K. (2018). The effects of information and social conformity on opinion change. PLoS ONE, 13(5), e0196600. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0196600
Margolis, G. J. (1966). Secrecy and identity. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 47(4), 517–522.
Mitchell, M. S., Baer, M. D., Ambrose, M. L., Folger, R., & Palmer, N. F. (2017). Cheating under pressure: A self-protection model of workplace cheating behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000254
Pachankis, J. E. (2007). The psychological implications of concealing a stigma: A cognitive affective behavioral model. Psychological Bulletin, 133(2), 328–345. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.2.328
Paulhus, D. L. (1984). Two-component models of socially desirable responding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(3), 598–609. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.46.3.598
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to attitude change. Springer/Verlag.
Potoczniak, D. J., Aldea, M. A., & Deblaere, C. (2007). Ego identity social anxiety, social support, and self-concealment in Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual individuals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(4), 447–457. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.54.4.447
Rader, C. A., Soll, J. B., & Larrick, R. P. (2015). Pushing away from representative advice: Advice taking, anchoring, and adjustment. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 130, 26–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2015.05.004
Rodebaugh, T. L., Woods, C. M., Thissen, D. M., Heimberg, R. G., & Chambless, D. L. (2004). More Information from fewer questions: The factor structure and item properties of the original and brief fear of negative evaluation scale. Psychological Assessment, 16(2), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.16.2.169
Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2005). Competence perceptions and academic functioning. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of Competence and Motivation (pp. 85–104). The Guilford Press.
Slepian, M. L. (2021). A process model of having and keeping secrets. Psychological Review. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000282
Slepian, M. L., Chun, J. S., & Mason, M. F. (2017). The experience of secrecy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113(1), 1–33. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000085
Slepian, M. L., Camp, N. P., & Masicampo, E. J. (2015). Exploring the secrecy burden: Secrets, preoccupation, and perceptual judgments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(2), 31–42. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000052
Slepian, M. L., & Greenaway, K. H. (2018). The benefits and burdens of keeping others’ secrets. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 78, 220–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2018.02.005
Slepian, M. L., Halevy, N., & Galinsky, A. D. (2019). The solitude of secrecy: Thinking about secrets evokes goal conflict and feelings of fatigue. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 45(7), 1129–1151. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167218810770
Slepian, M. L., Kirby, J. N., & Kalokerinos, E. K. (2020). Shame, guilt, and secrets on the mind. Emotion, 20(2), 323–328. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000542
Sniezek, J. A., & Buckley, T. (1995). Cueing and cognitive conflict in judge-advisor decision making. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 62(2), 159–174. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1995.1040
Sniezek, J. A., Paese, P. W., & Switzer, F. S. (1990). The effect of choosing on confidence in choice. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 46(2), 264–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(90)90032-5
Sniezek, J. A., & van Swol, L. M. (2001). Trust, confidence, and expertise in a judge advisor system. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 84(2), 288–307. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.2000.2926
Snow, A. (2011). Ambiguity aversion and the propensities for self-insurance and self-protection. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 42(1), 27–43.
Song, X., Huang, F., & Li, X. (2016). The effect of embarrassment on preferences for brand conspicuousness: the roles of self-esteem and self-brand connection. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 27(1), 69–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2016.05.001
van Swol, L. M., Paik, J. E., & Prahl, A. (2018). Advice recipients: The psychology of advice utilization. In E. L. MacGeorge & L. M. Van Swol (Eds.), Oxford Handbook of Advice (pp. 21–41). Oxford University Press.
van Swol, L. M., Prahl, A., MacGeorge, E., & Branch, S. (2019). Imposing advice on powerful people. Communication Reports, 32(3), 173–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934215.2019.1655082
van Swol, L. M., & Sniezek, J. A. (2005). Factors affecting the acceptance of expert advice. British Journal of Social Psychology, 44(3), 443–461. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466604X17092
Wang, L., & Murnighan, J. K. (2011). On greed. The Academy of Management Annals, 5(1), 279–316. https://doi.org/10.1080/19416520.2011.588822
Weeks, J. W., Heimberg, R. G., & Rodebaugh, T. L. (2008a). The fear of positive evaluation scale: Assessing a proposed cognitive component of social anxiety. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22(1), 44–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.08.002
Weeks, J. W., Heimberg, R. G., Rodebaugh, T. L., & Norton, P. J. (2008b). Exploring the relationship between fear of positive evaluation and social anxiety. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22(3), 386–400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.04.009
Weeks, J. W., & Howell, A. N. (2012). The bivalent fear of evaluation model of social anxiety: Further integrating findings on fears of positive and negative evaluation. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 41(2), 83–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2012.661452
Weeks, J. W., Jakatdar, T. A., & Heimberg, R. G. (2010). Comparing and contrasting fears of positive and negative evaluation as facets of social anxiety. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 29(1), 68–94. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2010.29.1.68
Wheeler, S. C., Briñol, P., & Hermann, A. D. (2007). Resistance to persuasion as self-regulation: Ego-depletion and its effects on attitude change processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43(1), 150–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2006.01.001
White, T. B. (2005). Consumer trust and advice acceptance: The moderating roles of benevolence, expertise, and negative emotions. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 15(2), 141–148. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327663jcp1502_6
Wild, N. D. (2004). Self-concealment as a predictor of psychotherapy outcome [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Windsor.
Wismeijer, A. A. J. (2011). Secrets and subjective well-being: A clinical oxymoron. In I. Nyklicek, A. J. J. M. Vingerhoets, & M. Zeelenberg (Eds.), Emotion regulation and well-being (pp. 307–323). Springer.
Wismeijer, A. A. J., & Assen, M. A. L. M. (2008). Do neuroticism and extraversion explain the negative effect of self-concealment on subjective well-being? Personality and Individual Differences, 45, 345–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.05.002
Wismeijer, A. A. J., Van Assen, M. A. L. M., & Bekker, M. H. J. (2014). The relations between secrecy, rejection sensitivity and autonomy-connectedness. Journal of General Psychology, 141(2), 65–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.2013.862200
Wismeijer, A. A. J., & Vingerhoets, A. J. J. M. (2007). De emotionele belasting van geheimen: Gevolgen voor de somatische gezondheid en implicaties voor de hulpverlening = The emotional burden of secrets Consequences for somatic health and implications for health care. Tijdschrift Voor Psychiatrie, 49(6), 383–389.
Wright, D. B., Gabbert, F., Memon, A., & London, K. (2018). Changing the criterion for memory conformity in free recall and recognition. Memory, 16(2), 137–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210701836174
Yang, K. C. C. (2004). Effects of consumer motives on search behavior using internet advertising. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 7(4), 430–442. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2004.7.430
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Statement
We certify that this manuscript is original and has not been published and will not be submitted elsewhere for publication while being considered by Current Psychology. And the study is not split up into several parts to increase the number of submissions and submitted to various journals or one journal over time. No data have been fabricated or manipulated (including images) to support our conclusions. No data, text, or theories by others are presented as if they were our own.
The submission has been received explicitly from all co-authors. And authors whose names appear on the submission have contributed sufficiently to the scientific work and therefore share collective responsibility and accountability for the results.
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. This article does not contain any studies with animals or any medical studies involving human participants performed by any of the authors. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Duan, J., Song, A., Sun, Y. et al. The influence of secrecy on advice taking: A self-protection perspective. Curr Psychol 42, 18731–18748 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-02982-7
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-02982-7