Abstract
Feminist identity is a multidimensional construct, associated with significant physical and psychological outcomes. Despite this, it has previously been largely conceptualised and measured as unidimensional. To address this limitation, we developed a multidimensional measure of feminist identity using the framework of social identity theory. A total of 1493 respondents (81.8% women, 16.6% men, 1.5% other genders) aged between 18 and 75 years (M= 31.55, SD=11.37) completed an online survey. Following Confirmatory Factor Analysis, expert evaluation (N = 21), and testing of the model in a separate sample (N= 504), the Feminist Social Identity Scale (FSIS) was created. The FSIS is comprised of 36-items which measure feminist identity across 12 subscales and has excellent internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and validity indices. Latent Class Analysis revealed that the FSIS successfully distinguishes between different levels of feminist identity. The FSIS will aid future researchers to examine feminist identity as a multidimensional construct, avoiding the limitations of single construct measures.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Thank you to an anonymous reviewer for this suggestion
References
Ashmore, R. D., Deaux, K., & McLaughlin-Volpe, T. (2004). An organizing framework for collective identity: articulation and significance of multidimensionality. Psychological Bulletin, 130(1), 80–114. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.1.80
Asparouhov, T. & Muthén, B. (2012) Using Mplus TECH11 and TECH14 to test the number of latent classes. Mplus Web Notes: No. 14. Retrieved from https://www.statmodel.com/examples/webnotes/webnote14.pdf
Bobbio, A., & Manganelli, A. M. (2011). Measuring social desirability responding: A short version of Paulhus’ BIDR 6. Testing, Psychometrics, Methodology in Applied Psychology, 18(2), 117–135.
Brewer, M. B., & Gardner, W. (1996). Who is this “we”? Levels of collective identity and self representations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(1), 83–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.1.83
Carpenter, S., & Johnson, L. E. (2001). Women derive collective self-esteem from their feminist identity. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25(3), 254–257. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-6402.00026
Cunningham, E. (2010). A practical guide to structural equation modeling using AMOS. Statsline.
DeVellis, R. F. (2012). Scale development: Theory and applications. SAGE Publications.
Downing, N. E., & Roush, K. L. (1985). From passive acceptance to active commitment: A model of feminist identity development for women. The Counseling Psychologist, 13(4), 695–709. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000085134013
Fassinger, R. E. (1994). Development and testing of the Attitudes Toward Feminism and the Women’s Movement (FWM) Scale. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 389–402. https://doi.org/10.1037/t07291-000
Harnois, C. E. (2012). Sociological research on feminism and the women’s movement: Ideology, identity, and practice. Sociology Compass, 6(10), 823–832. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9020.2012.00484.x
Henley, N. M., Meng, K., O’Brien, D., McCarthy, W. J., & Sockloskie, R. J. (1998). Developing a scale to measure the diversity of feminist attitudes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 317–348. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1998.tb00158.x
Huddy, L., Neely, F. K., & Lafay, M. R. (2000). Trends: Support for the women’s movement. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 64(3), 309–350.
Hyde, J. S. (2002). Feminist identity development: The current state of theory, research, and practice. The Counseling Psychologist, 30(1), 105–110. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000002301007
IBM Corp. Released. (2016). IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 24.0. IBM Corp.
Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). The Guilford Press.
Klonoff, E. A., & Landrine, H. (1995). The Schedule of Sexist Events: A measure of lifetime and recent sexist discrimination in women’s lives. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19, 439–472. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1995.tb00086.x
Leaper, C., & Arias, D. M. (2011). College women’s feminist identity: A multidimensional analysis with implications for coping with sexism. Sex Roles, 64(7–8), 475–490. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9936-1
Lenhard, W., & Lenhard, A. (2014). Testing the significance of correlations. Psychometrica. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.2954.1367
Liss, M., & Erchull, M. J. (2010). Everyone feels empowered: Understanding feminist self-labeling. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34(1), 85–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2009.01544.x
Liss, M., O’Connor, C., Morosky, E., & Crawford, M. (2001). What makes a feminist? Predictors and correlates of feminist social identity in college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25(2), 124–133. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-6402.00014
Liss, M., Crawford, M., & Popp, D. (2004). Predictors and correlates of collective action. Sex Roles, 50(11/12), 771–779. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:sers.0000029096.90835.3f
Luhtanen, R., & Crocker, J. (1992). A collective self-esteem scale: Self-evaluation of one’s social identity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18(3), 302–318. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167292183006
McCabe, J. (2005). What’s in a label? The relationship between feminist self-identification and “feminist” attitudes among U.S. women and men. Gender & Society, 19(4), 480–505. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243204273498
McNeish, D. (2018). Thanks coefficient alpha, we’ll take it from here. Psychological Methods, 23(3), 412–433. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000144
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2015). Mplus user’s guide (7th ed.). Muthén & Muthén.
Nelson, J. A., Liss, M., Erchull, M. J., Hurt, M. M., Ramsey, L. R., Turner, D. L., & Haines, M. E. (2008). Identity in action: predictors of feminist self-identification and collective action. Sex Roles, 58(9–10), 721–728. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9384-0
Nylund, K. L., Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2007). Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling: A Monte Carlo simulation study. Structural Equation Modeling, 14, 535–569. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510701575396
Olkin, I., & Pratt, J. W. (1958). Unbiased estimation of certain correlation coefficients. Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 29(1), 201–211. https://doi.org/10.1214/aoms/1177706717
Reingold, B., & Foust, H. (1998). Exploring the determinants of feminist consciousness in the United States. Women & Politics, 19(3), 19–48. https://doi.org/10.1300/J014v19n03
Rhodebeck, L. A. (1996). The structure of men’s and women’s feminist orientations: Feminist identity and feminist opinion. Gender & Society, 10(4), 386–403. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124396010004003
Roy, R. E., Weibust, K. S., & Miller, C. T. (2007). Effects of stereotypes about feminists on feminist self-identification. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 146–156. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00348.x
Saunders, K. J., & Kashubeck-West, S. (2006). Relations among feminist identity development, gender-role orientation, and psychological well-being in women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 199–211. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2006.00282.x
Schnittker, J., Freese, J., & Powell, B. (2003). Who are feminists and what do they believe? The role of generations. American Sociological Review, 68, 607–622. https://doi.org/10.2307/1519741
Schubert, T. W., & Otten, S. (2002). Overlap of self, ingroup, and outgroup: Pictorial measures of self-categorization. Self and Identity, 1(4), 353–376. https://doi.org/10.1080/152988602760328012
Smith, C. A. (1999). I enjoy being a girl: Collective self-esteem, feminism, and attitudes toward women. Sex Roles, 40(3/4), 281–293. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018855106539
Stephenson-Abetz, J. (2012). Everyday activism as a dialogic practice: Narratives of feminist daughters. Women’s Studies in Communication, 35(1), 96–117. https://doi.org/10.1080/07491409.2012.667868
Stoner, J., Perrewe, P. L., & Hofacker, C. (2011). The development and validation of the Multi-Dimensional Identification Scale ( MDIS ). Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 41(7), 1632–1658. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2011.00770.x
Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., & Ferguson, M. J. (2001). Everyday sexism: Evidence for its incidence, nature, and psychological impact from three daily diary studies. Journal of Social Issues, 57(1), 31–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00200
Swirsky, J. M., & Angelone, D. J. (2014). Femi-Nazis and bra burning crazies: A qualitative evaluation of contemporary beliefs about feminism. Current Psychology, 33, 229–245. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-014-9208-7
Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories. Cambridge University Press.
Twenge, J. M., & Zucker, A. N. (1999). What is a feminist? Evaluations and stereotypes in closed- and open-ended responses. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 23, 591–605. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1999.tb00383.x
Ullman, J. B. (2006). Structural equation modeling: Reviewing the basics and moving forward. Journal of Personality Assessment, 87(1), 35–50. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa8701_03
Wang, S., Chen, C.-C., Dai, C.-L., & Richardson, G. B. (2018). A call for, and beginners guide to, measurement invariance testing in evolutionary psychology. Evolutionary Psychological Science, 4, 166–178. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40806-017-0125-5
Weston, R., & Gore Jr., P. A. (2006). A brief guide to structural equation modeling. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(5), 719–751. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006286345
Williams, R., & Wittig, M. A. (1997). ‘I’m not a feminist, but...’: factors contributing to the discrepancy between pro-feminist orientation and feminist social identity. Sex Roles, 37(11/12), 885–904. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02936345
World Values Survey (2014). http://worldvaluessurvey.org/.
Worthington, R. L., & Whittaker, T. A. (2006). Scale development research: A content analysis and recommendations for best practices. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(6), 806–838. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006288127
Yuan, K., & Bentler, P. M. (1998). Structural equation modeling with robust covariances. Sociological Methodology, 28(1), 363–396. https://doi.org/10.1111/0081-1750.00052
Zucker, A. N. (2004). Disavowing social identities: What it means when women say, “I’m not a feminist, but...”. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28, 423–435. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2004.00159.x
Zucker, A. N., & Bay-Cheng, L. Y. (2010). Minding the gap between feminist identity and attitudes: the behavioral and ideological divide between feminists and non-labelers. Journal of Personality, 78(6), 1895–1924. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00673
Acknowledgements
Professor Christine Critchley passed away shortly before the completion of this manuscript. The first author would like to express her greatest appreciation for Christine’s supervision and contribution to this research. Christine will be greatly missed.
Thank you to Dr Evita March for aiding in the final stages of the completion of this manuscript, and to Jo-ann Larkins and Eden Chalker for their assistance.
Availability of Data and Material
Due to privacy and ethical concerns, the data cannot be made available
Funding
No funds, grants, or other support was received.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of Interest
The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose
Ethics Approval
The study was approved by the Swinburne University Human Research Ethics Committee. We certify that the study was performed in accordance with the ethical standards as laid down in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Consent to Participate
Informed consent for participation and publication was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
ESM 1
(DOCX 90 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Poll, A., Critchley, C. Development and validation of the feminist social identity scale. Curr Psychol 42, 12614–12629 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02590-x
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02590-x