Abstract
This study aims to explore the characteristics of social adaptation between only children and children with siblings among Chinese adolescents, and examine gender differences in each profile, between the two samples. The participants were 1455 only children, and 665 children with siblings. Based on their self-reported social adaptation using the Social Adaptation Scale for Children and Adolescents, the latent profile analysis (LPA) showed that only children were classified into the high social adaptation (25.7%), middle social adaptation (32.3%), and low social adaptation groups (42.0%). Children with siblings were classified into the highest social adaptation (25.6%), low environment satisfaction (11.0%), low opinion acceptance (27.5%), and lowest social adaptation groups (35.9%). Moreover, the results showed that for both groups of children, female and male participants performed differently on different profiles. This study’s findings have implications for developing appropriate interventions targeted in the diverse patterns of the social adaptation of only children and children with siblings among Chinese adolescents.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The datasets generated and/or analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.
Code Availability
Not applicable.
References
Ahmadi Sarbarzeh, P. A., Karimi, S., Jalilian, M., & Mosafer, H. (2020). Depression, anxiety, stress and social isolation in hepatitis patients. Scimedicine Journal, 2(4), 225–233. https://doi.org/10.28991/SciMedJ-2020-0204-5
Akaike, H. (1987). Factor analysis and AIC. In Springer series in statistics (pp. 371–386). Springer.
Allen, J. P., Porter, M. R., McFarland, F. C., Marsh, P., & McElhaney, K. B. (2005). The two faces of adolescents’ success with peers: Adolescent popularity, social adaptation, and deviant behavior. Child Development, 76(3), 747–760. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00875.x
An, L., Liu, C., Zhang, N., Chen, Z., Ren, D., Yuan, F., et al. (2019). GRIK3 RS490647 is a common genetic variant between personality and subjective well-being in Chinese Han population. Emerging Science Journal, 3(2), 78–87. https://doi.org/10.28991/esj-2019-01171
Arbuckle, J. L. (1996). Full information estimation in the presence of incomplete data. In G. A. Marcoulides & R. E. Schumaker (Eds.), Advanced structural equation modeling (pp. 243–277). Erlbaum.
Batson, C. D., Early, S., & Salvarani, G. (1997). Perspective taking: Imagining how another feels versus imaging how you would feel. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(7), 751–758. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167297237008
Bergman, L. R., & Magnusson, D. (1997). A person-oriented approach in research on developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 9(2), 291–319. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457949700206X
Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106(4), 676–713. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.106.4.676
Byrne, D. G., Davenport, S. C., & Mazanov, J. (2007). Profiles of adolescent stress: The development of the adolescent stress questionnaire (ASQ). Journal of Adolescence, 30(3), 393–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.04.004
Cameron, L., Erkal, N., Gangadharan, L., & Meng, X. (2013). Little emperors: Behavioral impacts of China’s one-child policy. Science, 339(6122), 953–957. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1230221
Chen, C., Feng, L., Wang, D., & Li, C. (2008). Characteristics of subjective well-being and self-esteem and their relationship in adult only children families in China. Psychological Development and Education, 24(3), 71–76. https://doi.org/10.16187/j.cnki.issn1001-4918.2008.03.019
Chen, X., He, Y., De Oliveira, A. M., Coco, A. L., Zappulla, C., Kaspar, V., et al. (2004). Loneliness and social adaptation in Brazilian, Canadian, Chinese and Italian children: A multi-national comparative study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 45(8), 1373–1384. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00329.x
Chen, X., Rubin, K. H., & Li, D. (1997). Relation between academic achievement and social adjustment: Evidence from Chinese children. Developmental Psychology, 33(3), 518–525. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.33.3.518
Chen, Y. N., Yao, S. Q., & Xin, X. H. (2018). Cognitive emotion regulation strategies among Chinese adolescents having unprotected sex: A latent profile analysis. Psychology, Health and Medicine, 23(1), 58–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2017.1325506
Clark, S. L., & Muthén, B. (2009). Relating latent class analysis results to variables not included in the analysis. Statistical Modelling http://statmodel.com/download/relatinglca.pdf.
Cunren, F., Chuanwen, W., Guobin, L., & Qicheng, J. (1994). A comparative study of personality characteristics between only and non-only children of primary schools in Xi’an. Psychology Science, 17(2), 70–74.
Curran, T. (2018). An actor-partner interdependence analysis of cognitive flexibility and indicators of social adjustment among mother–child dyads. Personality and Individual Differences, 126, 99–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.01.025
Davis, C. G., Thake, J., & Vilhena, N. (2010). Social desirability biases in self-reported alcohol consumption and harms. Addictive Behaviors, 35(4), 302–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2009.11.001
DeRosier, M. E., & Lloyd, S. W. (2011). The impact of children’s social adjustment on academic outcomes. Reading and Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 27(1), 25–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2011.532710
Dong, J., Tan, D., & Zhang, Y. (2019). Support and urban adaptability: The mediating role of hope and the moderating role of whether only-child or not. Chinese Journal of Special Education, 228(6), 78–84.
Downey, D. B., Condron, D. J., & Yucel, D. (2015). Number of siblings and social skills revisited among American fifth graders. Journal of Family Issues, 36(2), 273–296. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X13507569
Dunn, J. (1983). Sibling relationships in early childhood. Child Development, 54(4), 787–811. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129886
Eccles, J. S., Midgley, C., Wigfield, A., Buchanan, C. M., Reuman, D., Flanagan, C., & Iver, D. M. (1993). Development during adolescence. The impact of stage-environment fit on young adolescents’ experiences in schools and in families. American Psychologist, 48(2), 90–101. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.48.2.90
Emran, M. S., Jiang, H., & Shilpi, F. (2020). Gender bias and intergenerational educational mobility: Theory and evidence from China and India. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3555501 or https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3555501.
Falbo, T., & Hooper, S. Y. (2015). China’s only children and psychopathology: A quantitative synthesis. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 85(3), 259–274. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000058
Falbo, T., & Polit, D. F. (1986). Quantitative review of the only child literature: Research evidence and theory development. Psychological Bulletin, 100(2), 176–189. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.100.2.176
Galinsky, A. D., & Moskowitz, G. B. (2000). Perspective-taking: Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(4), 708–724. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.78.4.708
Gold, N. (1993). Depression and social adjustment in siblings of boys with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 23(1), 147–163. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01066424
Guo, C., Yang, M., Miao, H., & Chang, T. (2018). Revision of social adaptation scale for children and adolescents. Journal of Southwest University (social sciences edition), 44(3), 103–110. https://doi.org/10.13718/j.cnki.xdsk.2018.03.014
Hall, H. K., Millear, P. M. R., Summers, M. J., & Isbel, B. (2021). Longitudinal research on perspective taking in adolescence: A systematic review. Adolescent Research Review, 6(2), 125–150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-021-00150-9
Hjern, A., Lindblad, F., & Vinnerljung, B. (2002). Suicide, psychiatric illness, and social maladjustment in intercountry adoptees in Sweden: A cohort study. The Lancet, 360(9331), 443–448. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)09674-5
Hu, T. (2007). Research on developmental characteristics and its influencing factors to social adaptation of ‘floating children’. Southwest University.
Jiao, S., Ji, G., Jing, Q., & Ching, C. C. (1986). Comparative study of behavioral qualities of only children and sibling children. Child Development, 57(2), 357–361. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130591
Lanza, S. T., & Cooper, B. R. (2016). Latent class analysis for developmental research. Child Development Perspectives, 10(1), 59–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12163
Lee, M. H. (2012). The one-child policy and gender equality in education in China: Evidence from household data. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 33(1), 41–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-011-9277-9
Lee, S. H. (2020). A community arts program for underserved children: Getting things done and member development. Scimedicine Journal, 2(3), 138–150. https://doi.org/10.28991/SciMedJ-2020-0203-4
León, J., & Liew, J. (2017). Profiles of adolescents’ peer and teacher relatedness: Differences in well-being and academic achievement across latent groups. Learning and Individual Differences, 54, 41–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2017.01.009
Ling, M. (2017). Precious son, reliable daughter: Redefining son preference and parent–child relations in migrant households in urban China. The China Quarterly, 229, 150–171. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305741016001570
Lo, Y., Mendell, N. R., & Rubin, D. B. (2001). Testing the number of components in a normal mixture. Biometrika, 88(3), 767–778. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/88.3.767
Miao, H., Li, Z., Yang, Y., & Guo, C. (2018). Social comparison orientation and social adaptation among young Chinese adolescents: The mediating role of academic self-concept. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1067. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01067
Mistry, R. S., Vandewater, E. A., Huston, A. C., & McLoyd, V. C. (2002). Economic well-being and children’s social adjustment: The role of family process in an ethnically diverse low-income sample. Child Development, 73(3), 935–951. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00448
Muthén, L. K., & Muthen, B. (2017). Mplus user’s guide: Statistical analysis with latent variables, user’s guide. Muthén & Muthén.
Neto, F. (2002). Social adaptation difficulties of adolescents with immigrant backgrounds. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 30(4), 335–345. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2002.30.4.335
Niu, P. (2019). Research on the influence of urban migrant children’s discrimination perception on their social adaptation. Master’s dissertation. Lanzhou University.
Niwa, E. Y., Way, N., & Hughes, D. L. (2014). Trajectories of ethnic-racial discrimination among ethnically diverse early adolescents: Associations with psychological and social adjustment. Child Development, 85(6), 2339–2354. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12310
Oberski, D. (2016). Mixture models: Latent profile and latent class analysis. In Human–Computer Interaction Series (pp. 275–287). Springer.
Ortega, L., Montalvo, I., Monseny, R., Vilella, E., & Labad, J. (2019). Perceived stress mediates the relationship between social adaptation and quality of life in individuals at ultra high risk of psychosis. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 13(6), 1447–1454. https://doi.org/10.1111/eip.12791
Østefjells, T., Lystad, J. U., Berg, A. O., Hagen, R., Loewy, R., Sandvik, L., et al. (2017). Metacognitive beliefs mediate the effect of emotional abuse on depressive and psychotic symptoms in severe mental disorders. Psychological Medicine, 47(13), 2323–2333. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291717000848
Østefjells, T., Melle, I., Hagen, R., Romm, K. L., Sönmez, N., Andreassen, O. A., & Røssberg, J. I. (2015). Unhelpful metacognitive beliefs in early psychosis are associated with affective symptoms and childhood social adjustment. Schizophrenia Research, 169(1–3), 280–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2015.10.026
Parcel, T. L., & Dufur, M. J. (2001). Capital at home and at school: Effects on child social adjustment. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63(1), 32–47. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00032.x
Peleg, O. (2012). Social anxiety and social adaptation among adolescents at three age levels. Social Psychology of Education, 15(2), 207–218. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-011-9164-0
Peugh, J., & Fan, X. (2013). Modeling unobserved heterogeneity using latent profile analysis: A Monte Carlo simulation. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 20(4), 616–639. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2013.824780
Pfeifer, J. H., Masten, C. L., Borofsky, L. A., Dapretto, M., Fuligni, A. J., & Lieberman, M. D. (2009). Neural correlates of direct and reflected self-appraisals in adolescents and adults: When social perspective-taking informs self-perception. Child Development, 80(4), 1016–1038. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01314.x
Schwarz, G. (1978). Estimating the dimension of a model. The Annals of Statistics, 6(2), 461–464. https://doi.org/10.1214/aos/1176344136
Sclove, S. L. (1987). Application of model-selection criteria to some problems in multivariate analysis. Psychometrika, 52(3), 333–343. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02294360
Sen, A. (1990). More than 100 million women are missing. New York Review of Books, 37(20), 61–66. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315093727-13
Sim, F., Thompson, L., Marryat, L., Law, J., & Wilson, P. (2019). Preschool developmental concerns and adjustment in the early school years: Evidence from a Scottish birth cohort. Child: Care, Health and Development, 45(5), 719–736. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12695
Smith, J. P., Lei, X., Shen, Y., & Zhou, G. (2018). Fertility, gender preference, the birth planning policy and life satisfaction in China. Journal of Population Research, 35(1), 23–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12546-018-9199-6
Stormshak, E. A., Connell, A. M., Véronneau, M. H., Myers, M. W., Dishion, T. J., Kavanagh, K., & Caruthers, A. S. (2011). An ecological approach to promoting early adolescent mental health and social adaptation: Family centered intervention in public middle schools. Child Development, 82(1), 209–225. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01551.x
Udechukwu, N. S. (2019). Social work intervention against illegal child adoption. Scimedicine Journal, 1(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.28991/SciMedJ-2019-0101-1
Ullrich-French, S., Cox, A. E., & Rhoades Cooper, B. (2016). Examining combinations of social physique anxiety and motivation regulations using latent profile analysis. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 20(1), 63–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/1091367X.2015.1107571
Villarosa-Hurlocker, M. C., & Madson, M. B. (2020). A latent profile analysis of social anxiety and alcohol use among college students. Addictive Behaviors, 104, 106284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.106284
Wang, Y., & Fong, V. L. (2009). Little emperors and the 4:2:1 generation: China’s singletons. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48(12), 1137–1139. https://doi.org/10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181bc72f8
Ward, C., & Kennedy, A. (1994). Acculturation strategies, psychological adjustment, and sociocultural competence during cross-cultural transitions. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 18(3), 329–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(94)90036-1
Weissman, M. M. (1975). The assessment of social adjustment: A review of techniques. Archives of General Psychiatry, 32(3), 357–365. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1975.01760210091006
Wilson, T. M., Zheng, C., Lemoine, K. A., Martin, C. P., & Tang, Y. (2016). Achievement goals during middle childhood: Individual differences in motivation and social adjustment. The Journal of Experimental Education, 84(4), 723–743. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2015.1094648
Wolfe, K. R., Vannatta, K., Nelin, M. A., & Yeates, K. O. (2015). Executive functions, social information processing, and social adjustment in young children born with very low birth weight. Child Neuropsychology: A Journal on Normal and Abnormal Development in Childhood and Adolescence, 21(1), 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2013.866217
Wu, S., & Keysar, B. (2007). The effect of culture on perspective taking. Psychological Science, 18(7), 600–606. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01946.x
Yang, B., Ollendick, T. H., Dong, Q., Xia, Y., & Lin, L. (1995). Only children and children with siblings in the People’s republic of China: Levels of fear, anxiety, and depression. Child Development, 66(5), 1301–1311. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131648
Zeng, Y., & Hesketh, T. (2016). The effects of China’s universal two-child policy. The Lancet, 388(10054), 1930–1938. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31405-2
Zhang, Y. Y., & Tong, H. J. (2006). A meta-analysis of the psychological health of those who are the only child in their families and those who are not. Journal of University of Science and Technology of Suzhou (Social Sciences), 23(4), 11–115.
Funding
This study has been supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (grant number: SWU1909106) and The National Social Science Fund of China (grant number: 19ZDA357).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Yuqing Zhang, Cheng Guo and Hui Meng contributed the concept of the study, collected the data and wrote the manuscript. Xiangling Hou and Wanfen Chen recalculated the data and critically read the manuscript in the process of revising the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Approval
All the procedures followed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee, the 1964 Helsinki declaration, and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
All the participants gave written informed consent after extensive explanation regarding the procedures.
Competing Interests
The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declared that they had no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Zhang, Y., Guo, C., Hou, X. et al. Variants of social adaptation in Chinese adolescents: A latent profile analysis. Curr Psychol 42, 10761–10774 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02362-7
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02362-7