Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The association between mothering behaviors and empathy in European-American and Asian-American emerging adults

  • Published:
Current Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

A Correction to this article was published on 17 January 2022

This article has been updated

Abstract

Empathy is an essential component of positive human interaction driven in part by parenting. Most research on parents’ role in empathy focuses on child and adolescent samples. Thus, the present study examined the relations between current maternal behaviors (warmth and behavioral control) and empathic concern of European-American and Asian-American college-going emerging adults residing in the U.S. Gender (male/female) was explored as a moderator. Participants included 606 (69.6% women, 79.5% European American) undergraduate students ages 18–29. Gender and ethnic differences were observed: (a) emerging-adult women reported greater levels of empathy than did emerging-adult men, and (b) European Americans reported greater levels of empathy than did Asian Americans. Maternal warmth was related positively to empathy, maternal behavioral control was related negatively to empathy, and Maternal Warmth x Gender was significant with the maternal warmth-empathy relation being stronger for men than women. Implications and future directions are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Change history

References

  • Alexander, A. J., Khera, G. S., & Bedi, R. P. (2021). Bicultural identity and self-construal in-family among Indian American emerging adults: A mixed-methods study. Journal of Adult Development, 28, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-020-09356-y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arnett, J. J. (2015). Emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens through the twenties (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.

  • Barber, B. K., Stolz, H. E., & Olsen, J. A. (2005). Parental support, psychological control, and behavioral control: Assessing relevance across time, culture, and method. Monographs of the Society for Research in child development, 70(4). Blackwell Publishing.

  • Barry, C. M., Padilla-Walker, L. M., Madsen, S. D., & Nelson, L. J. (2008). The impact of maternal relationship quality on emerging adults’ prosocial tendencies: Indirect effects via regulation of prosocial values. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 581–591. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-007-9238-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barnett, M. A. (1987). Empathy and related responses in children. In N. Eisenberg & J. Strayer (Eds.), Empathy and its development (pp. 146–163). Cambridge University Press.

  • Budwig, N., & Alexander, A. J. (2020). A transdisciplinary approach to student learning and development in university settings. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 2724.https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.576250

  • Camras, L. A. (2011). Differentiation dynamical integration and functional emotional development. Emotion Review, 3, 138–146. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910387944.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlo, G., Padilla-Walker, L. M., & Nielson, M. G. (2015). Longitudinal bidirectional relations between adolescents’ sympathy and prosocial behavior. Developmental Psychology, 51, 1771–1777. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000056.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chao, R. K. (2001). Extending research on the consequences of parenting style for Chinese Americans and European Americans. Child Development, 72, 1832–1843. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00381.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chao, R. K., & Aque, C. (2009). Interpretations of parental control by Asian immigrant and European American youth. Journal of Family Psychology, 23, 342–354. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015828.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Y., & Katz, J. E. (2009). Extending family to school life: College students’ use of the mobile phone. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 67, 179–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2008.09.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, Y., Kim, Y. S., Kim, S. Y., & Park, I. K. (2013). Is Asian American parenting controlling and harsh? Empirical testing of relationships between Korean American and Western parenting measures. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 4(1), 19–29. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031220.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Collins, W. A., & Russell, G. (1991). Mother-child and father-child relationships in middle childhood and adolescence: A developmental analysis. Developmental Review, 11, 99–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-2297(91)90004-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, M. H. (1980). A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy. JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 10, 85–104. https://www.uv.es/~friasnav/Davis_1980.pdf

  • Dawson, J. F. (2014). Moderation in management research: What, why, when and how. Journal of Business and Psychology, 29, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-013-9308-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, J. F., & Richter, A. W. (2006). Probing three-way interactions in moderated multiple regression: Development and application of a slope difference test. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 917–926. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.4.917.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deater-Decker, K., Lansford, J. E., Malone, P. S., Alampay, L. P., Sorbring, E., Bacchini, D., et al. (2011). The association between parental warmth and control in thirteen cultural groups. Journal of Family Psychology, 25, 790–794. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Carlo, G., Troyer, D., Speer, A. L., Karbon, M., & Switzer, G. (1992). The relations of maternal practices and characteristics to children’s vicarious emotional responsiveness. Child Development, 63, 583–602. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1992.tb01648.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., & Strayer, J. (1987). Critical issues in the study of empathy. In N. Eisenberg & J. Strayer (Eds.), Empathy and its development (pp. 3–13). Cambridge University Press.

  • Farver, J. A. M., Narang, S. K., & Bhadha, B. R. (2002). East meets west: Ethnic identity, acculturation, and conflict in Asian Indian families. Journal of Family Psychology, 16(3), 338–350. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.16.3.338.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Findley, D., & Ojanen, T. (2013). Agentic and communal goals in early adulthood: Associations with narcissism, empathy, and perceptions of self and others. Self and Identity, 12(5), 504–526. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2012.694660.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fraley, R. C., & Davis, K. E. (1997). Attachment formation and transfer in young adults’ close friendships and romantic relationships. Personal Relationships, 4, 131–144. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.1997.tb00135.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fraser, A. M., Padilla-Walker, L. M., Coyne, S. M., Nelson, L. J., & Stockdale, L. A. (2012). Associations between violent video gaming, empathic concern, and prosocial behavior toward strangers, friends, and family members. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(5), 636–649. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9742-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friedlmeier, W., Corapci, F., & Benga, O. (2015). Early emotional development in cultural perspective. In L. A. Jensen (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of human development and culture: An interdisciplinary perspective (pp. 127–148). Oxford University Press.

  • Fuligni, A. J. (1998). Authority, autonomy, and parent-adolescent conflict and cohesion: A study of adolescents from Mexican, Chinese, Filipino, and European backgrounds. Developmental Psychology, 34, 782–792. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.34.4.782.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hart, C. H., Newell, L. D., & Olsen, S. F. (2003). Parenting skills and social-communicative competence in childhood. In J. O. Greene & B. R. Burleson (Eds.), Handbook of communication and social interaction skills (pp. 753–797). Erlbaum.

  • Hoffman, M. L. (1977). Sex differences in empathy and related behaviors. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 712–722 http://dx.doi.org.proxy-ln.researchport.umd.edu/10.1037/0033-2909.84.4.712.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, M., & Stattin, H. (2000). What parents know, how they know it, and several forms of adolescent adjustment: Further support for a reinterpretation of monitoring. Developmental Psychology, 36, 366–380. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.36.3.366.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • King, P. M., & Kitchener, K. S. (2016). Cognitive development in the emerging adult: The emergence of complex cognitive skills. In J. J. Arnett (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of emerging adults (pp. 105–125). Oxford University Press.

  • Konrath, S. H., O’Brien, E. H., & Hsing, C. (2011). Changes in dispositional empathy in American college students over time: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15, 180–198. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868310377395.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Labouvie-Vief, G. (2009). Dynamic integration theory: Emotion, cognition, and equilibrium in later life. In V. L. Bengston, D. Gans, N. M. Pulney, & M. Silverstein (Eds.), Handbook of theories of aging (pp. 277–293). Springer Publishing Company

  • Labouvie-Vief, G., Grühn, D., & Studer, J. (2010). Dynamic integration of emotion and cognition: Equilibrium regulation in development and aging. In M. E. Lamb, A. M. Freund, & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), The handbook of life-span development. Vol 2. Social and emotional development (pp. 79–115). Wiley.

  • Laible, D. J., Carlo, G., & Roesch, S. C. (2004). Pathways to self-esteem in late adolescence: The role of parent and peer attachment, empathy, and social behaviours. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 703–716. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2004.05.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lapsley, D., & Woodbury, R. D. (2016). Social cognitive development in emerging adulthood. In J. J. Arnett (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of emerging adults (pp. 142–162). Oxford University Press.

  • McGinley, M. (2018). Can hovering hinder helping? Examining the joint effects of helicopter parenting and attachment on prosocial behaviors and empathy in emerging adults. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 179(2), 102–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.2018.1438985.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGinley, M., Opal, D., Richaud, M. C., & Mesurado, B. (2014). Cross-cultural evidence of multidimensional prosocial behaviors: An examination of the prosocial tendencies measure (PTM). In L. M. Padilla-Walker & G. Carlo (Eds.), Prosocial development: A multidimensional approach (pp. 258–278). Oxford University Press.

  • McGrath, M. P., & Zook, J. M. (2011). Maternal control of girls versus boys: Relations to empathy and persuasive style with peers. Journal of Child and Family Study, 20, 57–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-010-9377-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miklikowska, M., Duriez, B., & Soenens, B. (2011). Family roots of empathy-related characteristics. Developmental Psychology, 47, 1342–1352. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024726.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moilanen, K. L., & Manuel, M. L. (2017). Parenting, self-regulation and social competence with peers and romantic partners. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 49, 46–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2017.02.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, L. J., Padilla-Walker, L. M., Christensen, K. J., Evans, C. A., & Carroll, J. S. (2011). Parenting in emerging adulthood: An examination of parenting clusters and correlates. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(6), 730–743. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-010-9584-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Niemiec, C. P., Lynch, M. F., Vansteenkiste, M., Bernstein, J., Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2006). The antecedents and consequences of autonomous self-regulation for college: A self-determination theory perspective on socialization. Journal of Adolescence, 29, 761–775. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2005.11.009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Norona, J. C., Preddy, T. M., & Welsh, D. P. (2016). How gender shapes emerging adulthood. In J. J. Arnett (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of emerging adulthood (pp. 449–463). Oxford University Press.

  • O’Brien, E., Konrath, S. H., Grühn, D., & Hagen, A. L. (2013). Empathic concern and perspective taking: Linear and quadratic effects of age across the adult life span. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 68(2), 168–175. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbs055

  • Padilla-Walker, L. M. (2016). Moral development during emerging adulthood. In J. J. Arnett (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of emerging adulthood (pp. 62–86). Oxford University Press.

  • Padilla-Walker, L. M., & Christensen, K. J. (2010). Empathy and self-regulation as mediators between parenting and adolescents’ prosocial behavior toward strangers, friends, and family. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 545–551. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00695.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Padilla-Walker, L. M., & Nelson, L. J. (2012). Black hawk down?: Establishing helicopter parenting as a distinct construct from other forms of parental control during emerging adulthood. Journal of Adolescence, 35(5), 1177–1190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.03.007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paterson, H., Reniers, R., & Völlm, B. (2009). Personality types and mental health experiences of those who volunteer for helplines. British Journal of Guidance and Counseling, 37, 459–471. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069880903161419.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, R. J. (1994). An assessment of perceptions of parental autonomy support and control: Child and parent correlates [Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation]. University of Rochester.

  • Ruhl, H., & Chow, C. M. (2016). Empathy in adolescence: Familial determinants and peer relationship outcomes. In D. F. Watt, J. Panksepp, D. F. Watt, & J. Panksepp (Eds.), Psychology and neurobiology of empathy (pp. 171–186). Nova Biomedical Books.

  • Sneed, J. R., Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Gilligan, C., Chen, H., Crawford, T. N., & Kasen, S. (2006). Gender differences in the age-changing relationship between instrumentality and family contact in emerging adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 42, 787–797. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.787.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L., Blatt-Eisengart, I., & Cauffman, E. (2006). Patterns of competence and adjustment among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful homes: A replication in a sample of serious juvenile offenders. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 47–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2006.00119.x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tanner, J. L. (2006). Recentering during emerging adulthood: A critical turning point in life span human development. In J. J. Arnett & J. L. Tanner (Eds.), Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21st century (pp. 21–56). American Psychological Association.

  • Van der Graaff, J., Carlo, G., Crocetti, E., Koot, H. M., & Branje, S. (2018). Prosocial behavior in adolescence: Gender differences in development and links with empathy. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 47, 1086–1099. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0786-1.

  • Williams, C., & Garland, A. (2002). A cognitive–behavioural therapy assessment model for use in everyday clinical practice. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 8, 172–179. https://doi.org/10.1192/apt.8.3.172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf, D. S. S., Sax, L., & Harper, C. E. (2009). Parental engagement and contact in the academic lives of college students. Journal of Student Affairs, Research, & Practice, 46(2), 325–358. https://doi.org/10.2202/1949-6605.6044.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zahn-Waxler, C., & Radke-Yarrow, M. (1990). The origins of empathic concern. Motivation and Emotion, 14, 107–130. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00991639.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, Q., Eisenberg, N., Losoya, S. H., Fabes, R. A., Reiser, M., & Guthrie, I. K. (2002). The relations of parental warmth and positive expressiveness to children’s empathy-related responding and social functioning: A longitudinal study. Child Development, 73, 893–915. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00446.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Author notes

  1. Joseph Bechhofer and Carolyn McNamara Barry contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Anna Maria College, 50 Sunset Lane – Box 61, Paxton, MA, 01612, USA

    Achu Johnson Alexander

  2. Department of Psychology, Loyola University, Baltimore, MD, USA

    Joseph Bechhofer, Carolyn McNamara Barry, Jason Prenoveau & Beth Kotchick

Authors
  1. Achu Johnson Alexander
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Joseph Bechhofer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Carolyn McNamara Barry
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Jason Prenoveau
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Beth Kotchick
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Achu Johnson Alexander.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

The dataset analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

The original vision of this article has been revised. Tables 1, 2 and 3 has been corrected.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Alexander, A.J., Bechhofer, J., Barry, C.M. et al. The association between mothering behaviors and empathy in European-American and Asian-American emerging adults. Curr Psychol 42, 8074–8084 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02139-y

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02139-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation