Abstract
Conscription is an exceptionally stressful life event for young adults. During service, some conscripts manage to cope with service challenges and demands, stay engaged and motivated. Others develop serious adjustment problems, which prevents them from continuing the service. The personality characteristic of psychological hardiness has been recognized as a protective factor against adversity and stressful events. The aim of this study is (1) compare levels of psychological hardiness between mandatory service volunteers and draftees (personal choice); (2) examine the direct and indirect effects of the relationship between psychological hardiness, basic psychological need satisfaction (Self-determination theory; Deci & Ryan, 2000) and engagement; (3) explore the potential moderating role of personal choice (i.e. volunteer service status) in the direct and indirect links between hardiness, need fulfilment, and engagement. The results among a sample of Lithuanian Armed Forces conscripts (N = 601) showed that conscripts who joined military service voluntarily scored significantly higher on hardiness compared to draftees. In addition, results of the structural equation analyses showed that the effect of psychological hardiness on conscripts’ engagement is at least partially mediated by psychological need satisfaction; this relationship is moderated by volunteer service status. This study is among the first to explore the role of personal choice (i.e. volunteer service status) for predicting conscripts’ engagement.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bartholomew, K. J., Ntoumanis, N., Ryan, R. M., Bosch, J. A., & Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C. (2011). Self-determination theory and diminished functioning. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(11), 1459–1473. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211413125.
Bartone, P. T. (2006). Resilience under military operational stress: Can leaders influence hardiness? Military Psychology, 18(sup1), S131–S148. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327876mp1803s_10.
Bartone, P. T., & Bowles, S. V. (2020). Coping with recruiter stress: Hardiness, performance and well-being in US Army recruiters. Military Psychology, 32(5), 390–397. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2020.1780061.
Bartone, P. T., Roland, R. R., Picano, J. J., & Williams, T. J. (2008). Psychological hardiness predicts success in US Army special forces candidates. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 16(1), 78–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2389.2008.00412.x.
Bartone, P. T., Johnsen, B. H., Eid, J., Hystad, S. W., & Laberg, J. C. (2017). Hardiness, avoidance coping, and alcohol consumption in war veterans: A moderated-mediation study: Hardiness, avoidance coping and alcohol. Stress and Health, 33(5), 498–507. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2734.
Bartone, P. T., McDonald, K., Stermac, J., Escobar, M., McNeil, J., & Stein, S. (2019). Development and validation of an improved hardiness tool: The hardiness resilience gauge. International Applied Military Psychology Symposium (IAMPS). http://iamps.org/papers/2019_BARTONE_paper.pdf
Boudrias, V., Trépanier, S.-G., Foucreault, A., Peterson, C., & Fernet, C. (2020). Investigating the role of psychological need satisfaction as a moderator in the relationship between job demands and turnover intention among nurses. Employee Relations: The International Journal, 42(1), 213–231. https://doi.org/10.1108/ER-10-2018-0277.
Britt, T. W., & Bliese, P. D. (2003). Testing the stress-buffering effects of self engagement among soldiers on a military operation: Self engagement as a buffer against stress. Journal of Personality, 71(2), 245–266. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.7102002.
Chambel, M. J., & Oliveira-Cruz, F. (2010). Breach of psychological contract and the development of burnout and engagement: A longitudinal study among soldiers on a peacekeeping Mission. Military Psychology, 22(2), 110–127. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995601003638934.
Cigrang, J. A., Carbone, E. G., Todd, S., & Fiedler, E. (1998). Mental health attrition from air force basic military training. Military Medicine, 163(12), 834–838. https://doi.org/10.1093/milmed/163.12.834.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The ‘what’ and ‘why’ of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01.
Deci, E. L., Ryan, R. M., Gagné, M., Leone, D. R., Usunov, J., & Kornazheva, B. P. (2001). Need satisfaction, motivation, and well-being in the work organizations of a former Eastern Bloc country: A cross-cultural study of self-determination. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(8), 930–942. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201278002.
Deci, E. L., Olafsen, A. H., & Ryan, R. M. (2017). Self-determination theory in work organizations: The state of a science. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 4(1), 19–43. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032516-113108.
Desrumaux, P., Lapointe, D., Ntsame Sima, M., Boudrias, J.-S., Savoie, A., & Brunet, L. (2015). The impact of job demands, climate, and optimism on well-being and distress at work: What are the mediating effects of basic psychological need satisfaction? European Review of Applied Psychology, 65(4), 179–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erap.2015.06.003.
Escolas, S. M., Pitts, B. L., Safer, M. A., & Bartone, P. T. (2013). The protective value of hardiness on military posttraumatic stress symptoms. Military Psychology, 25(2), 116–123. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0094953.
Fernet, C., Austin, S., & Vallerand, R. J. (2012). The effects of work motivation on employee exhaustion and commitment: An extension of the JD-R model. Work & Stress, 26(3), 213–229. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678373.2012.713202.
Florian, V., Mikulincer, M., & Taubman, O. (1995). Does hardiness contribute to mental health during a stressful real-life situation? The roles of appraisal and coping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(4), 687–695. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.68.4.687.
Forero, C. G. ., Maydeu-Olivares, A., & Gallardo-Pujol, D. (2009). Factor Analysis with Ordinal Indicators: A Monte Carlo Study Comparing DWLS and ULS Estimation. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 16(4), 625–641. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510903203573.
Fyhn, T., Fjell, K. K., & Johnsen, B. H. (2016). Resilience factors among police investigators: Hardiness-commitment a unique contributor. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 31(4), 261–269. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-015-9181-6.
Gagné, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Self-determination theory and work motivation. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(4), 331–362. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.322.
Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M. R. (2008). Structural equation modelling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 6(1), 53–60.
Hystad, S. W., Olsen, O. K., Espevik, R., & Säfvenbom, R. (2015). On the stability of psychological hardiness: A three-year longitudinal study. Military Psychology, 27(3), 155–168. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000069.
Inceoglu, I., & Warr, P. (2011). Personality and job engagement. Journal of Personnel Psychology, 10(4), 177–181. https://doi.org/10.1027/1866-5888/a000045.
Israelashvili, M., & Wegman-Rozi, O. (2007). Longitudinal evaluation of a preparation program for mandatory military service. Military Psychology, 19(3), 175–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995600701386333.
Ivey, G. W., Blanc, J.-R. S., & Mantler, J. (2015). An assessment of the overlap between morale and work engagement in a nonoperational military sample. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 20(3), 338–347. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038559.
JASP_Team. (2019). JASP (0.11.1). https://jasp-stats.org/
Katz, I., & Assor, A. (2007). When choice motivates and when it does not. Educational Psychology Review, 19(4), 429–442. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-006-9027-y.
Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). The Guilford Press.
Kobasa, S. C. (1979). Stressful life events, personality, and health: An inquiry into hardiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.37.1.1.
Kulikowski, K. (2017). Do we all agree on how to measure work engagement? Factorial validity of Utrecht Work Engagement Scale as a standard measurement tool – A literature review. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health, 30(2), 161–175. https://doi.org/10.13075/ijomeh.1896.00947
Lo Bue, S., Taverniers, J., Mylle, J., & Euwema, M. (2013). Hardiness promotes work engagement, prevents burnout, and moderates their relationship. Military Psychology, 25(2), 105–115. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0094952.
Lo Bue, S., Kintaert, S., Taverniers, J., Mylle, J., Delahaij, R., & Euwema, M. (2018). Hardiness differentiates military trainees on behavioural persistence and physical performance. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 16(4), 354–364. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2016.1232743.
Maddi, S. R. (2007). Relevance of hardiness assessment and training to the military context. Military Psychology, 19(1), 61–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995600701323301
Maddi, S. R., Harvey, R. H., Khoshaba, D. M., Fazel, M., & Resurreccion, N. (2009). Hardiness training facilitates performance in college. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(6), 566–577. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760903157133.
Maddi, S. R., Matthews, M. D., Kelly, D. R., Villarreal, B., & White, M. (2012). The role of hardiness and grit in predicting performance and retention of USMA cadets. Military Psychology, 24(1), 19–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2012.639672.
Mazzetti, G., Vignoli, M., Petruzziello, G., & Palareti, L. (2019). The hardier you are, the healthier you become. May hardiness and engagement explain the relationship between leadership and employees’ health? Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02784.
Patall, E. A., Cooper, H., & Robinson, J. C. (2008). The effects of choice on intrinsic motivation and related outcomes: A meta-analysis of research findings. Psychological Bulletin, 134(2), 270–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.270.
Prentice, M., Jayawickreme, E., & Fleeson, W. (2019). Integrating whole trait theory and self-determination theory. Journal of Personality, 87(1), 56–69. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12417.
Rigby, C. S., & Ryan, R. M. (2018). Self-determination theory in human resource development: New directions and practical considerations. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 20(2), 133–147. https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422318756954.
Ryan, R. M., Soenens, B., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2019). Reflections on self-determination theory as an organizing framework for personality psychology: Interfaces, integrations, issues, and unfinished business. Journal of Personality, 87(1), 115–145. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12440.
Rybakovaitė, J., Bandzevičienė, R., & Poškus, M. S. (2021). The impact of psychological hardiness on soldiers’ engagement and general health: The mediating role of need satisfaction. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01371-w.
Schaufeli, W. B., & Bakker, A. B. (2004). Job demands, job resources, and their relationship with burnout and engagement: A multi-sample study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25(3), 293–315. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.248.
Schaufeli, W. B., Bakker, A. B., & Salanova, M. (2006). The measurement of work engagement with a short questionnaire. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66(4), 701–716. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164405282471.
Stein, S. J., & Bartone, P. T. (2020). Hardiness: Making stress work for you to achieve your life goals. Wiley. isbn:978-1-119-58445-2.
Streiner, D. L. (2003). Starting at the beginning: An introduction to coefficient alpha and internal consistency. Journal of Personality Assessment, 80(1), 99–103. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327752JPA8001_18.
Sulea, C., van Beek, I., Sarbescu, P., Virga, D., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2015). Engagement, boredom, and burnout among students: Basic need satisfaction matters more than personality traits. Learning and Individual Differences, 42, 132–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.08.018.
Taris, T. W., van Beek, I., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2020). The motivational make-up of Workaholism and work engagement: A longitudinal study on need satisfaction, motivation, and heavy work investment. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1419. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01419.
Thomassen, Å. G., Hystad, S. W., Johnsen, B. H., Johnsen, G. E., Laberg, J. C., & Eid, J. (2015). The combined influence of hardiness and cohesion on mental health in a military peacekeeping mission: A prospective study. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 56(5), 560–566. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12235.
Trépanier, S.-G., Fernet, C., & Austin, S. (2016). Longitudinal relationships between workplace bullying, basic psychological needs, and employee functioning: a simultaneous investigation of psychological need satisfaction and frustration. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 25(5), 690–706. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2015.1132200.
Van den Broeck, A., Vansteenkiste, M., De Witte, H., & Lens, W. (2008). Explaining the relationships between job characteristics, burnout, and engagement: The role of basic psychological need satisfaction. Work & Stress, 22(3), 277–294. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678370802393672.
Van den Broeck, A., Vansteenkiste, M., de Witte, H., Soenens, B., & Lens, W. (2010). Capturing autonomy, competence, and relatedness at work: Construction and initial validation of the work-related basic need satisfaction scale. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83(4), 981–1002. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317909X481382.
Van Wingerden, J., Derks, D., & Bakker, A. B. (2018). Facilitating interns’ performance: The role of job resources, basic need satisfaction and work engagement. Career Development International, 23(4), 382–396. https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-12-2017-0237.
Williams, G. C., Halvari, H., Niemiec, C. P., Sørebø, Ø., Olafsen, A. H., & Westbye, C. (2014). Managerial support for basic psychological needs, somatic symptom burden and work-related correlates: A self-determination theory perspective. Work & Stress, 28(4), 404–419. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678373.2014.971920.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The author(s) declare no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this article.
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Rybakovaitė, J., Poškus, M.S. & Lo Bue, . Forced or free choice: Hardiness, need satisfaction, and engagement among military conscripts. Curr Psychol 42, 7909–7919 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02123-6
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02123-6