Abstract
Self-defining memories (i.e., memories of self-relevant events) were found to be hampered by Alzheimer’s Disease (AD). We therefore investigated whether this decline can be alleviated with odor exposure. We invited individuals with mild AD and healthy controls to choose a preferred odor and to retrieve three autobiographical memories after exposure to that odor as well as to retrieve three other memories without odor exposure. We analyzed the retrieved memories regarding their self-defining nature. Results demonstrated a retrieval of a higher number of self-defining memories in individuals with AD after odor-exposure than in the odor-free condition. Our study demonstrates positive effects of odor exposure on self-defining memories in AD but not in normal aging. We attribute the beneficial effect of odors in individuals with AD to their familiarity. At the clinical level, our findings contribute to the enhancement of autobiographical memory and the amelioration of diminished sense of self in AD.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Addis, D. R., & Tippett, L. J. (2004). Memory of myself: Autobiographical memory and identity in Alzheimer’s disease. Memory, 12(1), 56–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210244000423.
Ben Malek, H., Philippi, N., Botzung, A., Cretin, B., Berna, F., Manning, L., & Blanc, F. (2018). Memories defining the self in Alzheimer’s disease. Memory, 27, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2018.1554080.
Blagov, P. S., & Singer, J. A. (2004). Four dimensions of self-defining memories (specificity, meaning, content, and affect) and their relationships to self-restraint, distress, and repressive defensiveness. Journal of Personality, 72(3), 481–511.
Brandtstädter, J., & Greve, W. (1994). The aging self: Stabilizing and protective processes. Developmental Review, 14(1), 52–80. https://doi.org/10.1006/drev.1994.1003.
Brennan, R. L., & Prediger, D. J. (1981). Coefficient kappa: Some uses, misuses, and alternatives. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 41(3), 687–699.
Cann, A., & Ross, D. A. (1989). Olfactory stimuli as context cues in human memory. The American Journal of Psychology, 102(1), 91–102. https://doi.org/10.2307/1423118.
Caspi, A., & Roberts, B. W. (2001). Personality development across the life course: The argument for change and continuity. Psychological Inquiry, 12(2), 49–66. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1202_01.
Charles, S. T., & Pasupathi, M. (2003). Age-related patterns of variability in self-descriptions: Implications for everyday affective experience. Psychology and Aging, 18(3), 524–536. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.18.3.524.
Conway, M. A., Singer, J. A., & Tagini, A. (2004). The self and autobiographical memory: Correspondence and coherence. Social Cognition, 22(5), 491–529. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.22.5.491.50768.
El Haj, M., & Allain, P. (2020). Self-defining memories and their contribution to the sense of self in Alzheimer’s disease. Current Alzheimer Research, 17, 508–516. https://doi.org/10.2174/1567205017666200807184942.
El Haj, M., & Antoine, P. (2017). Describe yourself to improve your autobiographical memory: A study in Alzheimer’s disease. Cortex, 88, 165–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2017.01.004.
El Haj, M., Antoine, P., Nandrino, J. L., Gely-Nargeot, M. C., & Raffard, S. (2015a). Self-defining memories during exposure to music in Alzheimer’s disease. International Psychogeriatrics, 27(10), 1719–1730. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610215000812.
El Haj, M., Antoine, P., Nandrino, J. L., & Kapogiannis, D. (2015b). Autobiographical memory decline in Alzheimer’s disease, a theoretical and clinical overview. Ageing Research Reviews, 23(Pt B), 183–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2015.07.001.
El Haj, M., Gandolphe, M. C., Gallouj, K., Kapogiannis, D., & Antoine, P. (2017). From nose to memory: The involuntary nature of odor-evoked autobiographical memories in Alzheimer’s disease. Chemical Senses, 43(1), 27–34. https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/bjx064.
El Haj, M., Gallouj, K., & Antoine, P. (2019). Autobiographical recall as a tool to enhance the sense of self in Alzheimer’s disease. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 82, 28–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2019.01.011.
Folstein, M. F., Folstein, S. E., & McHugh, P. R. (1975). "Mini-mental state". A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12(3), 189–198 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1202204.
Glachet, O., & El Haj, M. (2019). Emotional and phenomenological properties of odor-evoked autobiographical memories in Alzheimer’s disease. Brain Sciences, 9(6), 135 https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/9/6/135.
Glachet, O., & El Haj, M. (2020a). Effects of olfactory stimulation on past and future thinking in Alzheimer’s disease. Chemical Senses, 45(4), 313–320. https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/bjaa016.
Glachet, O., & El Haj, M. (2020b). Smell your self: Olfactory stimulation improves self-concept in Alzheimer’s disease. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/09602011.2020.1831553.
Glachet, O., & El Haj, M. (2021). Odor is more effective than a visual cue or a verbal cue for the recovery of autobiographical memories in AD. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 43(2), 129–143. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2021.1882392.
Glachet, O., Gandolphe, M.-C., Gallouj, K., Antoine, P., & El Haj, M. (2018). Effects of olfactory stimulation on autobiographical memory in Alzheimer’s disease. Gériatrie et Psychologie Neuropsychiatrie du Vieillissement, 16(3), 311–320. https://doi.org/10.1684/pnv.2018.0748.
Glachet, O., Moustafa, A. A., Gallouj, K., & El Haj, M. (2019a). Smell your memories: Positive effect of odor exposure on recent and remote autobiographical memories in Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 41(6), 555–564. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2019.1586840.
Glachet, O., Moustafa, A. A., Gallouj, K., & El Haj, M. (2019b). Smell your memories: Positive effect of odor exposure on recent and remote autobiographical memories in Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 41, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2019.1586840.
Grober, E., & Buschke, H. (1987). Genuine memory deficits in dementia. Developmental Neuropsychology, 3(1), 13–36.
Herz, R. S. (2004). A naturalistic analysis of autobiographical memories triggered by olfactory visual and auditory stimuli. Chemical Senses, 29(3), 217–224 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15047596.
Kalafat, M., Hugonot-Diener, L., & Poitrenaud, J. (2003). Etalonnage français du MMS version GRECO. French norms of the MMSE GRECO version. Revue de Neuropsychologie, 13(1), 209–236.
Larsson, M., Willander, J., Karlsson, K., & Arshamian, A. (2014). Olfactory LOVER: Behavioral and neural correlates of autobiographical odor memory. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 312. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00312.
Martinelli, P., Anssens, A., Sperduti, M., & Piolino, P. (2013). The influence of normal aging and Alzheimer’s disease in autobiographical memory highly related to the self. Neuropsychology, 27(1), 69–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030453.
McKhann, G., Knopman, D. S., Chertkow, H., Hyman, B. T., Jack, C. R., Jr., Kawas, C. H., Klunk, W. E., Koroshetz, W. J., Manly, J. J., Mayeux, R., Mohs, R. C., Morris, J. C., Rossor, M. N., Scheltens, P., Carrillo, M. C., Thies, B., Weintraub, S., & Phelps, C. H. (2011). The diagnosis of dementia due to Alzheimer’s disease: Recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement, 7(3), 263–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2011.03.005.
Moffitt, K. H., & Singer, J. A. (1994). Continulty in the life story: Self-defining memories, affect, and approach/avoidance personal strivings. Journal of Personality, 62(1), 21–43. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1994.tb00793.x.
Mograbi, D. C., Brown, R. G., & Morris, R. G. (2009). Anosognosia in Alzheimer’s disease – the petrified self. Consciousness and Cognition, 18(4), 989–1003. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2009.07.005.
Pals, J. L. (1999). Identity consolidation in early adulthood: Relations with ego-resiliency, the context of marriage, and personality change. Journal of Personality, 67(2), 295–329 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10202806.
Rubin, D. C., Groth, E., & Goldsmith, D. J. (1984). Olfactory cuing of autobiographical memory. American Journal of Psychology, 97(4), 493–507 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6517162.
Saive, A. L., Royet, J. P., & Plailly, J. (2014). A review on the neural bases of episodic odor memory: From laboratory-based to autobiographical approaches. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 8, 240. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00240.
Schab, F. R. (1990). Odors and the remembrance of things past. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16(4), 648–655. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.16.4.648.
Singer, J. A., & Blagov, P. (2002). Classification system & scoring manual for self-defining memories. Connecticut College.
Singer, J. A., & Moffitt, K. H. (1992). An experimental investigation of specificity and generality in memory narratives. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 11(3), 233–257. https://doi.org/10.2190/72A3-8UPY-GDB9-GX9K.
Singer, J. A., Rexhaj, B., & Baddeley, J. (2007). Older, wiser, and happier? Comparing older adults’ and college students’ self-defining memories. Memory, 15(8), 886–898. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210701754351.
Singer, J. A., Blagov, P., Berry, M., & Oost, K. M. (2013). Self-defining memories, scripts, and the life story: Narrative identity in personality and psychotherapy. Journal of Personality, 81(6), 569–582. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12005.
Sutin, A. R., & Robins, R. W. (2008). When the “I” looks at the “Me”: Autobiographical memory, visual perspective, and the self. Consciousness and Cognition, 17(4), 1386–1397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2008.09.001.
Tabert, M. H., Liu, X., Doty, R. L., Serby, M., Zamora, D., Pelton, G. H., Marder, K., Albers, M. W., Stern, Y., & Devanand, D. P. (2005). A 10-item smell identification scale related to risk for Alzheimer’s disease. Annals of Neurology, 58(1), 155–160. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.20533.
Tulving, E., & Thomson, D. M. (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review, 80(5), 352–373.
Wechsler, D. (1981). Wechsler adult intelligence scale – revised. Psychological Corporation.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Morgane Rozniak for assistance in recruitment and data collection.
Authors’Contribution
MEH & OG supervised data collection, all authors contributed to data interpretation and the writing of the article.
Data Availability Statement
Data is available upon a reasonable request by email to the first author.
Funding
The study was supported by the LABEX (excellence laboratory, program investment for the future) DISTALZ (Development of Innovative Strategies for a Transdisciplinary Approach to Alzheimer Disease) and EU Interreg 2 Seas Programme 2014–2020 (co-funded by the European Regional Development Fund).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Approval
The study was conducted in accordance with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The study was approved by the ethical board of the University of Lille.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study (the sample included no participants with AD who were unable to provide consent).
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
El Haj, M., Glachet, O., Moustafa, A.A. et al. The smell of my self: Odor exposure increases the number of self-defining memories in Alzheimer’s disease. Curr Psychol 42, 7031–7037 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02028-4
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02028-4