Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine if Bloom-based Interlanguage Pragmatics (ILP) instruction could enhance EFL learners’ use of the speech act of request. Based on their OQPT scores, 43 students were assigned to a control group (n=23) and a treatment group (n=20). A written discourse completion task (WDCT) was developed to measure participants’ use of the speech act of request before and after the intervention. The results pointed to a significant difference between the performance of the treatment group in which Bloom-based treatment supported by Vygotskian scaffolding was employed and the control group which received no explicit ILP instruction. The treatment group also yielded significant gains from the pretest to posttest and to delayed posttest, while no significant improvement was observed in the performance of the control group. In-depth examination of the participants’ WDCT performance indicated that the four pragmatics factors (correct use of speech acts, type of expressions, amount of information, and degree of politeness) measured in this study, improved significantly, but differentially, from the pretest to delayed posttest. Comparison of the pretest and posttest data suggested that the component of degree of politeness enjoyed the highest degree of gain followed by amount of information, correct use of speech acts and type of expression.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alcón, E. (2005). Does instruction work for pragmatic learning in EFL contexts? System, 33(3), 417–435.
Alcón, E., & Martínez-Flor, A. (2005). Editors’ introduction to pragmatics in instructed language learning. System, 33(3), 381–384.
Aljaafreh, A., & Lantolf, J. P. (1994). Negative feedback as regulation and second language learning in the zone of proximal development. Modern Language Journal, 78, 465–483.
Allami, H., & Naeimi, A. (2011). A cross-linguistic study of refusals: An analysis of pragmatic competence development in Iranian EFL learners. Journal of Pragmatics, 43, 385–406.
Athanassiou, N., McNett, J. M., & Harvey, C. (2003). Critical thinking in the management classroom: Bloom's taxonomy as a learning tool. Journal of Management Education, 27(5), 533–555.
Bachman, L. F., & Palmer, A. (2010). Language assessment in practice: Developing language assessments and justifying their use in the real world. Oxford University Press.
Bailin, S. (2002). Critical thinking and science education. Science Education, 11, 361–375.
Ball, A. L., & Washburn, S. G. (2001). Teaching students to think: Practical applications of Bloom's taxonomy. The Agricultural Education Magazine, 74(3), 16.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1996). Pragmatics and language teaching: Bringing pragmatics and pedagogy together. In L. F. Bouton (Ed.), Pragmatics and language learning (pp. 21–39). Division of English as an International Language: University of Illinois, Urbana Champaign.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (2001). Evaluating the empirical evidence: Grounds for instruction in pragmatics? In K. R. Rose & G. Kasper (Eds.), Pragmatics in language teaching (pp. 13–32). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bardovi-Harlig, K., & Dörnyei, Z. (1998). Do language learners recognize pragmatic violations? Pragmatic vs. grammatical awareness in instructed L2 learning. TESOL Quarterly, 32, 233–259.
Bialystok, E. (Ed.). (1991). Language processing in bilingual children. Cambridge University Press.
Bialystok, E. (1993). Symbolic presentation and attentional control in pragmatic competence. In G. Kasper & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlanguage pragmatics (pp. 43–57). New York: Oxford University Press.
Birjandi, P., & Derakhshan, A. (2014). The impact of consciousness-raising video-driven vignettes on the pragmatic development of apology, request, & refusal. Applied Research on English Language, 3(1), 67–85.
Bloom, B, S., Engelhart M, D., Furst E, J., Hill W, H. & Krathwohl D, R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification of educational goals. Handbook, 1.
Blum-Kulka, S. (1987). Indirectness and politeness in requests: Same or different? Journal of Pragmatics, 11(2), 131–146.
Blum-Kulka, S. (1989). Playing it safe: The role of conventionality in indirectness. In S. BlumKulka, J. House, & G. Kasper (Eds.), Cross-cultural pragmatics: Requests and apologies, (1- 34). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Blum-Kulka, S. (1997). Discourse pragmatics. In T. Ivan Dijk (Ed.), Discourse as social interaction (pp. 38–63). London: Sage.
Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How people learn (Expanded ed.). Washington, DC: National Academy.
Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
Boxer, D., & Pickering, L. (1995). Problems in the presentation of speech acts in ELT materials: The case of complaints. ELT Journal, 49, 44–58.
Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1(1), 1–47.
Carr, K, S. (1990). How can we teach critical thinking? ERIC clearinghouse on elementary and early childhood education. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED326304).
Chen, H, Y. (2010). A classroom quasi-experimental study to explore processing instruction (Doctoral dissertation, University of York).
Clemons, S. A. (2005). Brain-based learning: Possible implications for online instruction. International Journal of Instructional Technology and distance learning, 2(9), 25–34.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Cohen, A. D., & Olshtain, E. (1981). Developing a measure of sociocultural competence: The case of apology. Language Learning, 31(1), 113–134.
Cook, M., & Liddicoat, A. (2002). The development of comprehension in interlanguage pragmatics: The case of request strategies in English. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 25, 19–39.
Crowe, A., Dirks, C., & Wenderoth, M. P. (2008). Biology in bloom: Implementing Bloom's taxonomy to enhance student learning in biology. CBE-Life Sciences Education, 7(4), 368–381.
Davidson, K., & Decker, T. (2006). Bloom’s and beyond: Higher level questions and activities for the creative classroom. Marion, IL: Pieces of Learning.
Demetrulias, D. A. M., & McCubbin, L. E. (1982). Constructing test questions for higher level thinking. Nurse Educator, 7(5), 13–17.
Díaz, A, R. (2013). Developing critical languaculture pedagogies in higher education: Theory and practice (Vol. 25). Multilingual matters.
Educational Testing Service. (2005). TOEFL iBT score comparison tables. Princeton, NJ: ETS.
Eslami-Rasekh, Z. (2005). Raising the pragmatic awareness of language learners. ELT Journal, 59(2), 199–208.
Flor, A. M., & Juan, E. U. (Eds.). (2010). Speech act performance: Theoretical, empirical and methodological issues (Vol. 26). John Benjamins Publishing.
Fraser, B. (1978). Acquiring social competence in a second language. RELC Journal, 9(2), 1–21.
Fraser, B. (1990). Perspectives on politeness. Journal of Pragmatics, 14(2), 219–236.
Fazilatfar, M. A., & Cheraghi, M. (2013). Exploring the effects of instruction on EFL learners’ pragmatic development. TELL, 7(2), 1–25.
Garcia, P. (2004). Pragmatic comprehension of high and low level language learners. TESL-EJ, 8(2), n2.
Geranpayeh, A. (2006). A quick review of the English quick placement test. Retrieved from University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations: https://www.uniss.it/documenti/lingue/what_is_the_QPT.pdf
Gilmore, A. (2004). A comparison of textbooks and authentic interactions. ELT Journal, 58(4), 363–374.
Hanna, W. (2007). The new Bloom's taxonomy: Implications for music education. Arts Education Policy Review, 108(4), 7–16.
Hudson, T., Detmer, E., & Brown, J. D. (1995). Developing prototypic measures of cross-cultural pragmatics. Honolulu, HI: Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaii.
Hymes, D. (1972). On communicative competence. In J. Pride & J. Holmes (Eds.), Sociolinguistics (pp. 269–293). Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
Idek, S., & Fong, L. L. (2015). The use of consciousness-raising techniques in teaching the verb ‘be’to students of vocational colleges. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 208, 111–121.
Ishihara, N. (2010). Assessment of pragmatics in the classroom. In N. Ishihara & A. D. Cohen (Eds.), Teaching and learning pragmatics: Where language and culture meet (pp. 286–317). Malaysia: Pearson Education.
Jeon, E. H., & Kaya, T. (2006). Effects of L2 instruction on interlanguage pragmatic development. Synthesizing research on language learning and teaching, 165–211.
Jernigan, J. E. (2007). Instruction and developing second language pragmatic competence: An investigation into the efficacy of output. The Florida State University.
Jernigan, J. E. (2012). Output and English as a second language pragmatic development: The effectiveness of output-focused video-based instruction. Canadian ELT Journal, 5(4), 2–14.
Jiang, X. (2006). Suggestions: What should ESL students know? System, 34(1), 36–54.
Kasper, G. (1997). Can pragmatic competence be taught?. http://www.nflrc.hawaii.edu/NetWorks/NW06/.
Kasper, G., & Rose, K. R. (2002). Pragmatic development in a second language (language learning monograph series). Oxford: Blackwell.
Kasper, G., & Rover, C. (2002). Pragmatics in second language learning. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 317–334). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Publishing.
Kasper, G., & Rover, C. (2005). Pragmatics in second language learning. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 317–334). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Publishing.
Kondo, S. (2008). Effects on pragmatic development through awareness-raising instruction: Refusals by Japanese EFL learners. Investigating pragmatics in foreign language learning, teaching and testing, 153–177.
Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of Bloom's taxonomy: An overview. Theory Into Practice, 41(4), 212–218.
Kunen, S., Cohen, R., & Solman, R. (1981). A levels-of-processing analysis of Bloom’s taxonomy. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73(2), 202–211.
Liaw, M, L. (2007). Content-based reading and writing for critical thinking skills in an EFL context. 英語教學期刊, 31(2), 45-87.
Liu, C. N. (2007). Pragmatics in foreign language instruction: The effects of pedagogical intervention and technology on the development of EFL learners’ realization of” request”. Texas A & M University.
MacIntyre, P. D., Dörnyei, Z., Clément, R., & Noels, K. A. (1998). Conceptualizing willingness to communicate in a L2: A situational model of L2 confidence and affiliation. The Modern Language Journal, 82(4), 545–562.
Mackey, A., & Gass, S. M. (2005). Second Language Research: Methodology and Design, Mahwah. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Mirzaei, A., & Seyyed Rezaei, M. (2012). Exploring the underrepresentation of pragmatic competence in the L2 classrooms in Iran. Social Sciences and Humanity Studies, 4(1), 1309–8063.
Olshtain, E., & Blum-Kulka, S. (1985). Crosscultural pragmatics and the testing of communicative competence. Language Testing, 2(1), 16–30.
Olshtain, E., & Cohen, A. D. (1990). The learning of complex speech act behavior. TESL Canada Journal, 7(2), 45–65.
Riazi, A, M., & Mosalanejad, N. (2010). Evaluation of learning objectives in Iranian high-school and pre-university English textbooks using Bloom’s taxonomy. TESL-EJ: The Electronic Journal for English as a Second Language, 13(4).
Rose, K. R. (1994). On the validity of DCTs in non-western contexts. Applied Linguistics, 15, 1–14.
Rose, K. R. (1999). Teachers and students learning about requests in Hong Kong. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Culture in second language teaching and learning (pp. 167–180). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rose, K. R. (2000). An exploratory cross-sectional study of interlanguage pragmatic development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22(1), 27–67.
Rose, K. R. (2005). On the effect of instruction in second language pragmatics. System, 33(3), 385–399.
Rose, K. R., & Kasper, G. (Eds.). (2001). Pragmatics in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schmidt, R. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition., 11, 129–158.
Schmidt, R. (1993). Consciousness, learning and interlanguage pragmatics. Interlanguage pragmatics, 21, 42.
Schmidt, R. (1995). Consciousness and foreign language learning: A tutorial on the role of attention and awareness in learning. Attention and awareness in foreign language learning, 9, 1–63.
Schmidt, R. (2012). Attention, awareness, and individual differences in language learning. Perspectives on individual characteristics and foreign language education, 6, 27.
Shardakova, M. (2005). Intercultural pragmatics in the speech of American L2 learners of Russian: Apologies offered by Americans in Russian. Intercultural Pragmatics, 2(4), 423–451.
Sharwood Smith, M. (1980). Consciousness raising and the second language learner. Applied Linguistics, 2, 159–168.
Sharwood Smith, M. (1993). Input enhancement in instructed second language acquisition: Theoretical bases. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15, 165–180.
Taguchi, N. (2007). Development of speed and accuracy in pragmatic comprehension in English as a foreign language. TESOL Quarterly, 41(2), 313–338.
Taguchi, N. (2011). The effect of L2 proficiency and study-abroad experience on pragmatic comprehension. Language Learning, 61, 904–939.
Takahashi, S. (2001). The role of input enhancement in developing pragmatic competence. Pragmatics in language teaching, 171–199.
Takahashi, S. (2005). Noticing in task performance and learning outcomes: A qualitative analysis of instructional effects in interlanguage pragmatics. System, 33(3), 437–461.
Tateyama, Y. (2001). Explicit and implicit teaching of pragmatic routines: Japanese sumimasen. In K. R. Rose & G. Kasper (Eds.), Pragmatics in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Taylor, D. S., Goles, T., and Chin, W. W. (2002). Measuring student learning. E-service journal 1, 41–51.
Thomas, J. (1983). Cross-cultural pragmatic failure. Applied Linguistics, 4(2), 91–109.
Thompson, T. (2008). Mathematics teachers’ interpretation of higher-order thinking in bloom’s taxonomy. Retrieved from: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.153.1356
Trosborg, A. (1995). Interlanguage pragmatics: Requests, complaints, and apologies (Vol. 7). Walter de Gruyter.
Truscott, J. (1998). Noticing in second language acquisition: A critical review. Second Language Research, 14(2), 103–135.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Woodfield, H. (2008). Problematising discourse completion tasks: Voices from verbal report. Evaluation and Research in Education, 21(1), 43–69.
Yuan, Y. (2001). An inquiry into empirical pragmatics data-gathering methods: Written DCTs, oral DCTs, field notes, and natural conversations. Journal of Pragmatics, 33(2), 271–292.
Zangoei, A., & Derakhshan, A. (2014). Iranian EFL learners’ ILP comprehension and their language learning preferences: The effect of consciousness-raising instruction. International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World, 5(2), 211–232.
Zoller, U. (1993). Are lecture and learning compatible? Maybe for LOCS: Unlikely for HOCS (SYM). Journal of Chemical Education, 70, 195–197.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all the participants prior to their participation in the study.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kaivanpanah, S., Langari, M.T. The effect of Bloom-based activities and Vygotskian scaffolding on Iranian EFL learners’ use of the speech act of request. Curr Psychol 41, 6348–6362 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01053-z
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01053-z