Abstract
Personality factors can make individuals more susceptible to society’s beauty ideals and can explain the differences between people who do and do not develop eating disorders and concerns about their body shape. This study has two main aims. First, we investigated the degree to which self-objectification mediated the associations between trait anxiety, self-esteem, and eating attitudes in a sample of 698 undergraduate students (375 women, 323 men). Second, we evaluated whether these associations showed analogous patterns across the genders. Our results demonstrated that self-esteem and trait anxiety might contribute to the internalization processes of societal beauty ideals, which may, in turn, lead to dysfunctional eating attitudes in both women and men. The findings suggested the importance of identifying the roles personality factors play in self-objectification for practitioners seeking to improve intervention and prevention strategies. These results are valuable in social contexts where women and men can learn functional and dysfunctional models of culture and behavior. Additionally, the results are useful in a clinical context for a more complete understanding of the etiological factors and outcomes associated with eating disorders.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams, D. F., Behrens, E., Gann, L., & Schoen, E. (2017). Gender conformity, self-objectification, and body image for sorority and nonsorority women: A closer look. Journal of American College Health, 65(2), 139–147. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2016.1264406.
Akaike, H. (1987). Factor analysis and AIC. Psychometrika, 52(3), 317–332. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02294359.
Aubrey, J. S. (2006). Exposure to sexually objectifying media and body self-perceptions among college women: An examination of the selective exposure hypothesis and the role of moderating variables. Sex Roles, 55(3–4), 159–172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9070-7.
Beebe, D. W., Holmbeck, G. N., Schober, A., Lane, M., & Rosa, K. (1996). Is body focus restricted to self-evaluation? Body focus in the evaluation of self and others. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 20(4), 415–422. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1098-108x(199612)20:4<415::aid-eat9>3.3.co;2-b.
Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 238–246. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.107.2.238.
Bosson, J. K., Swann Jr., W. B., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2000). Stalking the perfect measure of implicit self-esteem: The blind men and the elephant revisited? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(4), 631–643. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.79.4.631.
Brown, T. A. (2014). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. New York: The Guilford Press. https://doi.org/10.3102/1076998616631747.
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models. A sage focus editions, 154 (pp. 136–162). Newbury Park: Sage Publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124192021002005.
Brunet, J., Sabiston, C. M., Dorsch, K. D., & McCreary, D. R. (2010). Exploring a model linking social physique anxiety, drive for muscularity, drive for thinness and self-esteem among adolescent boys and girls. Body Image, 7(2), 137–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.11.004.
Button, E. J., Loan, P., Davies, J., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. (1997). Self-esteem, eating problems, and psychological well-being in a cohort of schoolgirls aged 15-16: A questionnaire and interview study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 21(1), 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1098-108x(199701)21:1%3C39::aid-eat5%3E3.0.co;2-4.
Byrne, B. M. (2016). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315757421.
Cabras, C., Marmillata, S., & Sechi, C. (2018). Sexual objectification in education: How do teachers perceive and evaluate students? Social Psychology of Education, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-018-9432-3.
Cafri, G., Yamamiya, Y., Brannick, M., & Thompson, J. K. (2005). The influence of sociocultural factors on body image: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 12(4), 421–433. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bpi053.
Calogero, R. M. (2004). A test of objectification theory: The effect of the male gaze on appearance concerns in college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28(1), 16–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2004.00118.x.
Calogero, R. M., & Thompson, J. K. (2009). Sexual self-esteem in American and British college women: Relations with self-objectification and eating problems. Sex Roles, 60(3–4), 160–173. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9517-0.
Cash, T. F., & Pruzinsky, T. (2002). Future challenges for body image theory, research, and clinical practice. Body image: A handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice, 509–516.
Choma, B. L., Visser, B. A., Pozzebon, J. A., Bogaert, A. F., Busseri, M. A., & Sadava, S. W. (2010). Self-objectification, self-esteem, and gender: Testing a moderated mediation model. Sex Roles, 63(9–10), 645–656. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9829-8.
Cook-Cottone, C., & Phelps, L. (2003). Body dissatisfaction in college women: Identification of risk and protective factors to guide college counseling practices. Journal of College Counseling, 6(1), 80–89. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1882.2003.tb00229.x.
Cramer, D., & Howitt, D. L. (2004). The sage dictionary of statistics: A practical resource for students in the social sciences. London and Thousand Oaks: Sage. https://doi.org/10.1108/09504120510580208.
Dakanalis, A., Timko, A. C., Clerici, M., Riva, G., & Carrà, G. (2017). Objectified body consciousness (OBC) in eating psychopathology: Construct validity, reliability, and measurement invariance of the 24-item OBC scale in clinical and nonclinical adolescent samples. Assessment, 24(2), 252–274. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191115602553.
David, P., & Johnson, M. A. (1998). The role of self in third-person effects about body image. Journal of Communication, 48(4), 37–58. https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/48.4.37.
Dotti, A., & Lazzari, R. (1998). Validation and reliability of the Italian EAT-26. Eating and Weight Disorders-Studies on Anorexia, Bulimia and Obesity, 3(4), 188–194. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03340009.
Doumit, R., Khazen, G., Katsounari, I., Kazandjian, C., Long, J., & Zeeni, N. (2017). Investigating vulnerability for developing eating disorders in a multiconfessional population. Community Mental Health Journal, 53(1), 107–116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-015-9872-6.
Fairburn, C. G., & Harrison, P. J. (2003). Eating disorders. The Lancet, 361(9355), 407–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(03)12378-1.
Finstad, E. M. (2003). Identity and disordered eating in white, Hispanic, and American Indian adolescents. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 64(2-B), 961.
Fitzsimmons-Craft, E. E. (2011). Social psychological theories of disordered eating in college women: Review and integration. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(7), 1224–1237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.07.011.
Fitzsimmons-Craft, E. E., & Bardone-Cone, A. M. (2012). Examining prospective mediation models of body surveillance, trait anxiety, and body dissatisfaction in African American and Caucasian college women. Sex Roles, 67(3–4), 187–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0151-5.
Fitzsimmons-Craft, E. E., Harney, M. B., Brownstone, L. M., Higgins, M. K., & Bardone-Cone, A. M. (2012). Examining social physique anxiety and disordered eating in college women. The roles of social comparison and body surveillance. Appetite, 59(3), 796–805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2012.08.019.
Franzoi, S. L. (1995). The body-as-object versus the body-as-process: Gender differences and gender considerations. Sex Roles, 33(5–6), 417–437. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01954577.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(2), 173–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x.
Garner, D. M., Olmsted, M. P., Bohr, Y., & Garfinkel, P. E. (1982). The eating attitudes test: Psychometric features and clinical correlates. Psychological Medicine, 12(4), 871–878. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291700049163.
Gattino, S., De Piccoli, N., Fedi, A., Boza, M., & Rollero, C. (2018). A cross-cultural study of biological, psychological, and social antecedents of self-objectification in Italy and Romania. Sex Roles, 78(5–6), 325–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0804-5.
Gentile, B., Grabe, S., Dolan-Pascoe, B., Twenge, J. M., Wells, B. E., & Maitino, A. (2009). Gender differences in domain-specific self-esteem: A meta-analysis. Review of General Psychology, 13(1), 34. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013689.
Grabe, S., & Hyde, J. S. (2006). Ethnicity and body dissatisfaction among women in the United States: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132(4), 622–640. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.4.622.
Greenleaf, C., & McGreer, R. (2006). Disordered eating attitudes and self-objectification among physically active and sedentary female college students. The Journal of Psychology, 140(3), 187–198. https://doi.org/10.3200/jrlp.140.3.187-198.
Harter, S. (1997). The personal self in social context: Barriers to authenticity. In R. D. Ashmore & L. J. Jussim (Eds.), Rutgers series on self and social identity, Vol. 1. Self and identity: Fundamental issues (pp. 81–105). New York: Oxford University Press.
Hayes, D., & Ross, C. E. (1987). Concern with appearance, health beliefs, and eating habits. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 28(2), 120–130. https://doi.org/10.2307/2137126.
Heywood, S., & McCabe, M. P. (2006). Negative affect as a mediator between body dissatisfaction and extreme weight loss and muscle gain behaviors. Journal of Health Psychology, 11(6), 833–844. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105306069077.
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118.
Hudson, J. I., Hiripi, E., Pope, H. G., & Kessler, R. C. (2007). The prevalence and correlates of eating disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Biological Psychiatry, 61(3), 348–358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.03.040.
Jackson, T., Zheng, P., & Chen, H. (2015). Features of objectified body consciousness and sociocultural perspectives as predictors of eating and body image disturbances among young women and men in China. Journal of Gender Studies, 25(5), 599–612. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2015.1073144.
Karazsia, B. T., van Dulmen, M. H., Wong, K., & Crowther, J. H. (2013). Thinking meta-theoretically about the role of internalization in the development of body dissatisfaction and body change behaviors. Body Image, 10(4), 433–441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2013.06.005.
Keel, P. K., & Forney, K. J. (2013). Psychosocial risk factors for eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 46(5), 433–439. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22094.
Kline, R. B. (2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York: Guilford publications.
Lindner, D., Tantleff-Dunn, S., & Jentsch, F. (2012). Social comparison and the ‘circle of objectification’. Sex Roles, 67(3–4), 222–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0175-x.
Loehlin, J. C., & Beaujean, A. A. (2016). Path models in factor, path, and structural equation analysis. In Latent Variable Models (pp. 15–50). London: Routledge.
Loughnan, S., Haslam, N., Murnane, T., Vaes, J., Reynolds, C., & Suitner, C. (2010). Objectification leads to depersonalization: The denial of mind and moral concern to objectified others. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40(5), 709–717. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.755.
MacGregor, M. W., & Lamborn, P. (2014). Personality assessment inventory profiles of university students with eating disorders. Journal of Eating Disorders, 2(1), 20–29. https://doi.org/10.1186/preaccept-1080328674113942.
MacNeill, L. P., Best, L. A., & Davis, L. L. (2017). The role of personality in body image dissatisfaction and disordered eating: Discrepancies between men and women. Journal of Eating Disorders, 5(1), 44. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40337-017-0177-8.
McGee, R. O. B., & Williams, S. (2000). Does low self-esteem predict health compromising behaviours among adolescents? Journal of Adolescence, 23(5), 569–582. https://doi.org/10.1006/jado.2000.0344.
McKinley, N. M. (2011). Feminist consciousness and objectified body consciousness. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35(4), 684–688. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684311428137.
McKinley, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (1996). The objectified body consciousness scale development and validation. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20(2), 181–215. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1996.tb00467.x.
McVey, G. L., Davis, R., Tweed, S., & Shaw, B. F. (2004). Evaluation of a school-based program designed to improve body image satisfaction, global self-esteem, and eating attitudes and behaviors: A replication study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 36(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.20006.
Melbye, L., Tenenbaum, G., & Eklund, R. (2007). Self-objectification and exercise behaviors: The mediating role of social physique anxiety. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 12(3–4), 196–220. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9861.2008.00021.x.
Miner-Rubino, K., Twenge, J. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2002). Trait self-objectification in women: Affective and personality correlates. Journal of Research in Personality, 36(2), 147–172. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.2001.2343.
Moradi, B. (2010). Addressing gender and cultural diversity in body image: Objectification theory as a framework for integrating theories and grounding research. Sex Roles, 63(1–2), 138–148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9824-0.
Moradi, B., & Varnes, J. R. (2017). Structure of the objectified body consciousness scale: Reevaluated 20 years later. Sex Roles, 77(5–6), 325–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0731-x.
Myers, T. A., & Crowther, J. H. (2008). Is self-objectification related to interceptive awareness? An examination of potential mediating pathways to disordered eating attitudes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32(2), 172–180. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00421.x.
Neumark-Sztainer, D., Paxton, S. J., Hannan, P. J., Haines, J., & Story, M. (2006). Does body satisfaction matter? Five-year longitudinal associations between body satisfaction and health behaviors in adolescent females and males. Journal of Adolescent Health, 39(2), 244–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.12.001.
Paxton, S. J., Eisenberg, M. E., & Neumark-Sztainer, D. (2006). Prospective predictors of body dissatisfaction in adolescent girls and boys: A five-year longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 42(5), 888–899. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.888.
Pedrabissi, L., & Santinello, M. (1989). Verifica della validità dello STAI forma Y di Spielberger [verification of the validity of the STAI, form Y, by Spielberger]. Giunti Organizzazioni Speciali, 191-192, 11–14.
Polivy, J., & Herman, C. P. (2002). Causes of eating disorders. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 187–213. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135103.
Prezza, M., Trombaccia, F. R., & Armento, R. (1997). La scala dell’autostima di Rosenberg: traduzione e validazione italiana [Rosenberg’s self-esteem scale: Italian translation and validation]. Bollettino di Psicologia Applicata, 223, 35–44.
Ricciardelli, L. A., & McCabe, M. P. (2001). Dietary restraint and negative affect as mediators of body dissatisfaction and bulimic behavior in adolescent girls and boys. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39(11), 1317–1328. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(00)00097-8.
Roberts, T. A., & Gettman, J. Y. (2004). Mere exposure: Gender differences in the negative effects of priming a state of self-objectification. Sex Roles, 51(1–2), 17–27. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:sers.0000032306.20462.22.
Rollero, C., Tartaglia, S., & De Piccoli, N. (2017). Psychometric properties of the Italian version of the body image coping strategies inventory. Psicologia sociale, 12(3), 293–306.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSE). Acceptance and commitment therapy. Measures package, 61, 52. https://doi.org/10.1037/t01038-000.
Schaefer, L. M., & Thompson, J. K. (2018). Self-objectification and disordered eating: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22854.
Shea, M. E., & Pritchard, M. E. (2007). Is self-esteem the primary predictor of disordered eating? Personality and Individual Differences, 42(8), 1527–1537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.10.026.
Solano-Pinto, N., & Cano-Vindel, A. (2012). Ansiedad en los trastornos alimentarios: Un estudio comparativo. Psicothema, 24(3), 384–389.
Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., Lushene, R., Vagg, P. R., & Jacobs, G. A. (1983). Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press. https://doi.org/10.1037/t06496-000.
Spielberger, C. D., & Smith, L. H. (1966). Anxiety (drive), stress, and serial-position effects in serial-verbal learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 72(4), 589–595. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0023769.
Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., & Lushene, R. E. (1970). Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Striegel-Moore, R. H., & Cachelin, F. M. (1999). Body image concerns and disordered eating in adolescent girls: Risk and protective factors. In N. G. Johnson, M. C. Roberts, & J. Worrel (Eds.), Beyond appearance: A new look at adolescent girls (pp. 85–108). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10325-003.
Striegel-Moore, R. H., Silberstein, L. R., & Rodin, J. (1986). Toward an understanding of risk factors for bulimia. American Psychologist, 41(3), 246–263. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.41.3.246.
Thompson, J. K., & Stice, E. (2001). Thin-ideal internalization: Mounting evidence for a new risk factor for body-image disturbance and eating pathology. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10(5), 181–183. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00144.
Thompson, J. K., Heinberg, L. J., Altabe, M., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (1999). Exacting beauty: Theory, assessment, and treatment of body image disturbance. Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10312-000.
Tiggemann, M. (2003). Media exposure, body dissatisfaction and disordered eating: Television and magazines are not the same! European Eating Disorders Review, 11(5), 418–430. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.502.
Tiggemann, M. (2013). Objectification theory: Of relevance for eating disorder researchers and clinicians? Clinical Psychologist, 17(2), 35–45. https://doi.org/10.1111/cp.12010.
Tiggemann, M., & Williams, E. (2012). The role of self-objectification in disordered eating, depressed mood, and sexual functioning among women: A comprehensive test of objectification theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36(1), 66–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684311420250.
Tylka, T. L., & Sabik, N. J. (2010). Integrating social comparison theory and self-esteem within objectification theory to predict women’s disordered eating. Sex Roles, 63(1–2), 18–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9785-3.
Vandenbosch, L., & Eggermont, S. (2012). Understanding sexual objectification: A comprehensive approach toward media exposure and girls' internalization of beauty ideals, self-objectification, and body surveillance. Journal of Communication, 62(5), 869–887. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01667.x.
Watt, A. D., & Konnert, C. A. (2018). Body satisfaction and self-esteem among middle-aged and older women: The mediating roles of social and temporal comparisons and self-objectification. Aging & mental health, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2018.1544222.
Zeigler-Hill, V. (2011). The connections between self-esteem and psychopathology. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 41(3), 157–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10879-010-9167-8.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Human Rights
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Cristina, C., Sara, M., Roberta, T. et al. Do Personal Factors Make Women and Men more Susceptible to Self-Objectification and the Development of Dysfunctional Eating Attitudes?. Curr Psychol 41, 924–934 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00622-6
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00622-6