Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Emotional expressions with minimal facial muscle actions. Report 1: Cues and targets

  • Published:
Current Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

We tested the hypothesis that a still-face person keeping direct gaze can express an emotion. The prospective study involved healthy volunteers as senders (n = 100). Four pictures of the face of a participant who tried to express certain emotion by gaze were obtained (Neutral – Angry – Sad – Happy). Twenty blinded judges judged the ability to express the emotions. We used the pupil/canthal tilt index for analysis of pupil dilatation. The pictures with emotions (n = 300) presented perfectly expressed emotions – 207 (69%), flawed expressions – 38 (12.66%), and lack of expression or inability to express an emotion – 55 (18.33%). The pupil/tilt index was: neutral gaze – 0.18, angry gaze – 0.21, sad gaze – 0.2, and happy gaze – 0.19. Majority of senders express an emotion by gaze very good. The facial expression of an emotion can be adequately achieved with only minimal muscular involvement when the gaze is the main component of such expression. An “emotional gaze” during a still-face or static face situation may be a result of the combined slight activity of small intraorbital muscles and broader involvement of sympathetic and parasympathetic reactions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aïte, A., Cassotti, M., Linzarini, A., Osmont, A., Houdé, O., & Borst, G. (2018). Adolescents' inhibitory control: Keep it cool or lose control. Developmental Science, 21(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12491.

  • Allen, H. (1875). Studies in the facial region (p. 3). Philadelphia: Lippincott & Co..

    Google Scholar 

  • Bänziger, T., Hosoya, G., & Scherer, K. R. (2015). Path models of vocal emotion communication. PLoS One, 10(9), e0136675. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0136675.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bayless, S. J., Glover, M., Taylor, M. J., & Itier, R. J. (2011). Is it in the eyes? Dissociating the role of emotion and perceptual features of emotionally expressive faces in modulating orienting to eye gaze. Visual Cognition, 19(4), 483–510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berenbaum, H., & Oltmanns, T. F. (1992). Emotional experience and expression in schizophrenia and depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101(1), 37–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brunswik, E. (1939). The conceptual focus of some psychological systems. Journal of Unified Science (Erkenntnis), 8, 36–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bush, L. K., Barr, C. L., McHugo, G. J., & Lanzetta, J. T. (1989). The effects of facial control and facial mimicry on subjective reactions to comedy routines. Motivation and Emotion, 13, 31–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chaplin, T. M., Klein, M. R., Cole, P. M., & Turpyn, C. C. (2017). Developmental change in emotion expression in frustrating situations: The roles of context and gender. Infant and Child Development, 26(6), e2028. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.2028.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • DiGirolamo, M. A., & Russell, J. A. (2017). The emotion seen in a face can be a methodological artifact: The process of elimination hypothesis. Emotion, 17(3), 538–546.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dijk, C., Fischer, A. H., Morina, N., van Eeuwijk, C., & van Kleef, G. A. (2018). Effects of social anxiety on emotional mimicry and contagion: Feeling negative, but smiling politely. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 42(1), 81–99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10919-017-0266-z.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1975). Unmasking the face. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fridlund, A. J. (1998). The new ethology of human facial expressions. In J. A. Russell & J. M. Fernandez-Dols (Eds.), The psychology of facial expression (p. 112). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frijda, N. H., & Tcherkassof, A. (1998). Facial expressions as modes of action readiness. In J. A. Russell & J. M. Fernandez-Dols (Eds.), The psychology of facial expression (p. 94). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gifford, R. (1994). A lens-mapping framework for understanding the encoding and decoding of interpersonal dispositions in nonverbal behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 398–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grossard, C., Chaby, L., Hun, S., Pellerin, H., Bourgeois, J., Dapogny, A., Ding, H., Serret, S., Foulon, P., Chetouani, M., Chen, L., Bailly, K., Grynszpan, O., & Cohen, D. (2018). Children facial expression production: Influence of age, gender, emotion subtype, elicitation condition and culture. Frontiers of Psychology, 9, 446. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00446 eCollection 2018.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guo, K. (2012). Holistic gaze strategy to categorize facial expression of varying intensities. PLoS One, 7(8), e42585. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0042585.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hamel, O., Corre, P., Ploteau, S., Armstrong, O., Rogez, J. M., Robert, R., & Hamel, A. (2012). Ciliary ganglion afferents and efferents variations: A possible explanation of postganglionic mydriasis. Surgical Radiological Anatomy, 34(10), 897–902.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hammond, K. R. (1980). Introduction to Brunswikian theory and methods. New Directions for Methodology of Social and Behavioral Science, 3, 1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helminen, T. M., Kaasinen, S. M., & Hietanen, J. K. (2011). Eye contact and arousal: The effects of stimulus duration. Biological Psychology, 88(1), 124–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoehl, S., & Striano, T. (2010). Infants' neural processing of positive emotion and eye gaze. Social Neuroscience, 5(1), 30–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoehl, S., Palumbo, L., Heinisch, C., & Striano, T. (2008). Infants' attention is biased by emotional expressions and eye gaze direction. Neuroreport, 19(5), 579–582.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ijuin, K., Umata, I., Kato, T., & Yamamoto, S. (2018). Difference in eye gaze for floor appointment in native- and second-language conversations. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 42, 113–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10919-017-0262-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ioannou, C., Zein, M. E., Wyart, V., Scheid, I., Amsellem, F., Delorme, R., Chevallier, C., & Grèzes, J. (2017). Shared mechanism for emotion processing in adolescents with and without autism. Scientific Reports, 7, 42696. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep42696.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Isaacowitz, D. M., & Choi, Y. (2011). The malleability of age-related positive gaze preferences: Training to change gaze and mood. Emotion, 11(1), 90–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Isaacowitz, D. M., Toner, K., & Neupert, S. D. (2009). Use of gaze for real-time mood regulation: Effects of age and attentional functioning. Psychology of Aging, 24(4), 989–994.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kappas, A., McHugo, G. J., & Lanzetta, J. T. (1989). Componential control and the modulation of emotional experience. Psychophysiology, 26, S37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kappas, A., Bherer, F., & Thériault, M. (2000). Inhibiting facial expressions: Limitations to the voluntary control of facial expressions of emotion. Motivation and Emotion, 24(4), 259–270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kreibig, S. D. (2010). Autonomic nervous system activity in emotion: A review. Biological Psychology, 84(3), 394–421.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kret, M. E. (2015). Emotional expressions beyond facial muscle actions. A call for studying autonomic signals and their impact on social perception. Frontiers of Psychology, 6, 711. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00711 eCollection 2015.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kret, M. E., & Sjak-Shie, E. E. (2018). Preprocessing pupil size data: Guidelines and code. Behavioral Research Methods. 2018 Jul 10. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-018-1075-y.

  • Lance, B. J., & Marsella, S. C. (2010). The expressive gaze model: Using gaze to express emotion. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, 30(4), 62–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDougal, D. H., & Gamlin, P. D. (2015). Autonomic control of the eye. Comprehensive Physiology, 5(1), 439–473.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Milders, M., Hietanen, J. K., Leppänen, J. M., & Braun, M. (2011). Detection of emotional faces is modulated by the direction of eye gaze. Emotion, 11(6), 1456–1461.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Myllyneva, A., Ranta, K., & Hietanen, J. K. (2015). Psychophysiological responses to eye contact in adolescents with social anxiety disorder. Biological Psychology, 109, 151–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, N. L., & Russell, J. A. (2014). Dynamic facial expressions allow differentiation of displays intended to convey positive and hubristic pride. Emotion, 14(5), 857–864.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Noh, S. R., Lohani, M., & Isaacowitz, D. M. (2011). Deliberate real-time mood regulation in adulthood: The importance of age, fixation and attentional functioning. Cognition and Emotion, 25(6), 998–1013. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2010.541668.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Novello, B., Renner, A., Maurer, G., Musse, S., & Arteche, A. (2018). Development of the youth emotion picture set. Perception, 47(10–11), 1029–1042. https://doi.org/10.1177/0301006618797226.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pfaff, M. J., Chang, C. C., Patel, A., & Steinbacher, D. M. (2013). Bridge of bone canthopexy: Technique and morphologic assessment. Journal of Plastic, Reconstructive & Aesthetic Surgery, 66(5), 675–681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjps.2012.12.028.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pochedly, J. T., Widen, S. C., & Russell, J. A. (2012). What emotion does the "facial expression of disgust" express? Emotion, 12(6), 1315–1319.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raschke, G. F., Bader, R. D., Rieger, U. M., & Schultze-Mosgau, S. (2011). Photo-assisted analysis of blepharoplasty results. Annals of Plastic Surgery, 66(4), 328–333. https://doi.org/10.1097/SAP.0b013e3181fadd71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raschke, G. F., Rieger, U. M., Bader, R. D., Schäfer, O., & Schultze-Mosgau, S. (2012). Standardized anthropometric evaluation of ectropion repair results. Journal of Craniofacial Surgery, 23(4), 1032–1037. https://doi.org/10.1097/SCS.0b013e3182505507.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Recio, G., Shmuilovich, O., & Sommer, W. (2014). Should I smile or should I frown? An ERP study on the voluntary control of emotion-related facial expressions. Psychophysiology, 51(8), 789–799. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12220.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, D. A. J., & Gifford, R. (2001). The sounds and the sights of intelligence: A lens model channel analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 187–200.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodger, H., Lao, J., & Caldara, R. (2018). Quantifying facial expression signal and intensity use during development. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 174, 41–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2018.05.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, J. A. (1998). Reading emotions from and into faces: Resurrecting a dimensional-contextual perspective. In J. A. Russell & J. M. Fernandez-Dols (Eds.), The psychology of facial expression (p. 298). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sauer, A., Mothes-Lasch, M., Miltner, W. H., & Straube, T. (2014). Effects of gaze direction, head orientation and valence of facial expression on amygdala activity. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 9(8), 1246–1252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, C. A., & Scott, S. H. (1998). Componential approach to the meaning of facial expressions. In J. A. Russell & J. M. Fernandez-Dols (Eds.), The psychology of facial expression (p. 237). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinhauer, S. R., Condray, R., & Pless, M. L. (2015). Pharmacological isolation of cognitive components influencing the pupillary light reflex. Journal of Ophthalmology, 2015, 179542. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/179542.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Teo, L., Lee, S. Y., & Kim, C. Y. (2017). Effect of upgaze on lower eyelid position in Korean patients with congenital ptosis. Journal of Plastic, Reconstructive & Aesthetic Surgery, 70(3), 380–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjps.2016.10.020.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vick, S.-J., Waller, B. M., Parr, L. A., Smith Pasqualini, M. C., & Bard, K. A. (2007). A cross-species comparison of facial morphology and movement in humans and chimpanzees using the Facial Action Coding System (FACS). Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 31, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10919-006-0017-z.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wadlinger, H. A., & Isaacowitz, D. M. (2008). Looking happy: The experimental manipulation of a positive visual attention bias. Emotion, 8(1), 121–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wells, L. J., Gillespie, S. M., & Rotshtein, P. (2016). Identification of emotional facial expressions: Effects of expression, intensity, and sex on eye gaze. PLoS One, 11(12), e0168307. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0168307 eCollection 2016.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Widen, S. C., & Russell, J. A. (2013). Children's recognition of disgust in others. Psychology Bulletin, 139(2), 271–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Widmann, A., Schröger, E., & Wetzel, N. (2018). Emotion lies in the eye of the listener: Emotional arousal to novel sounds is reflected in the sympathetic contribution to the pupil dilation response and the P3. Biological Psychology, 133, 10–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xiao, R., Li, X., Li, L., & Wang, Y. (2016). Can we distinguish emotions from faces? Investigation of implicit and explicit processes of peak facial expressions. Frontiers of Psychology, 7, 1330. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01330 eCollection 2016.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zloteanu, M., Krumhuber, E. G., & Richardson, D. C. (2018). Detecting genuine and deliberate displays of surprise in static and dynamic faces. Frontiers of Psychology, 9, 1184. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors thank Mordechai Cohen, Orit Rome, Leor Sinai, Rachelle Sevitt, and Alex Lasky for assistance in the research in Israel, and Roger Kassebaum, Damon Scoville, Pauline Kim, and Daniel Bareket for assistance in the research in the USA.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Belkind School for Special Education, Rishon-LeZion, Israel

    Yulia Roitblat

  2. Science Research Department, Milken Community High School, Los Angeles, CA, 90049, USA

    Sabrina Cohensedgh, Eden Frig-Levinson & Ethan Suman

  3. Science Research Department, Alexander Muss High School in Israel (AMHSI) affiliated with Alexander Muss Institute for Israel Education (AMIIE), Aliyat HaNoar 9, 45102, Hod HaSharon, Israel

    Sabrina Cohensedgh, Eden Frig-Levinson, Ethan Suman & Michael Shterenshis

Authors
  1. Yulia Roitblat
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sabrina Cohensedgh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Eden Frig-Levinson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Ethan Suman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Michael Shterenshis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael Shterenshis.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

Yulia Roitblat, Sabrina Cohensedgh, Eden Frig-Levinson, Ethan Suman, and Michael Shterenshis declare no potential conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Roitblat, Y., Cohensedgh, S., Frig-Levinson, E. et al. Emotional expressions with minimal facial muscle actions. Report 1: Cues and targets. Curr Psychol 40, 2133–2141 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-0151-5

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-0151-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation