Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Shame- and guilt-proneness in an italian sample: Latent structure and gender invariance of the personal feelings questionnaire-2 (PFQ-2)

  • Published:
Current Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The PFQ-2 is a brief and widely used questionnaire assessing shame- and maladaptive guilt-proneness. As empirical literature suggests cultural differences in self-conscious emotions, the present study aimed at validating the PFQ-2 in an Italian community sample (N = 367; 258 females; M age = 33.67). In particular, we investigated the factor structure of the PFQ-2, its invariance across genders, and associations of the two scales with clinically relevant constructs. Confirmatory Factor Analysis showed that a modified two-factor model fitted our data and could be replicated fairly well across genders. Both guilt- and shame-proneness scales showed acceptable internal consistency, adequate test-retest reliability, and significant associations with criterion measures (e.g., personality pathology, narcissism, psychopathological symptoms). Specific concerns regarding potentially weak items and implications of our findings were discussed. Overall, results mirror previous studies on shame- and guilt-proneness, and provide a validated Italian version of the PFQ-2 for the assessment of their clinical correlates in community samples.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Akaike, H. (1981). Likelihood of a model and information criteria. Journal of Econometrics, 16, 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(81)90071-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Altmann, T. (2017). Structure, validity, and development of a brief version of the narcissistic inventory-revised and its relation to current measures of vulnerable and grandiose narcissism. Personality and Individual Differences, 104, 207–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.08.009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, J. L., Sellbom, M., & Salekin, R. T. (2018). Utility of the personality inventory for DSM-5-brief form (PID-5-BF) in the measurement of maladaptive personality and psychopathology. Assessment, 25(5), 596–607. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191116676889.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, B. (1995). Bodily shame as a mediator between abusive experiences and depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 277–285. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.104.2.277.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, B., Qian, M., & Valentine, J. D. (2002). Predicting depressive symptoms with a new measure of shame: The experience of shame scale. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 41, 29–42. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466502163778.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anolli, L., & Pascucci, P. (2005). Guilt and guilt-proneness, shame and shame-proneness in Indian and Italian young adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 763–773. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.03.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Averill, P. M., Diefenbach, G. J., Stanley, M. A., Breckenridge, J. K., & Lubsy, B. (2002). Assessment of shame and guilt in a psychiatric sample: A comparison of two measures. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 1365–1376. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00124-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartlett, C. J., Bobko, P., Mosier, S. B., & Hannan, R. (1978). Testing for fairness with a moderated multiple regression strategy: An alternative to differential analysis. Personnel Psychology, 31, 233–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Basile, B., Mancini, F., Macaluso, E., Caltagirone, C., & Bozzali, M. (2014). Abnormal processing of deontological guilt in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Brain Structure & Function, 219(4), 1321–1331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-013-0570-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bedford, O., & Hwang, K. (2003). Guilt and shame in Chinese culture: A cross-cultural framework from the perspective of morality and identity. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 33(2), 127–144. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5914.00210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York, NY: Wiley.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Broucek, F. J. (1982). Shame and its relationship to early narcissistic development. The International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 63, 369–378.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, B. M. (2009). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, B. M., Shavelson, R. J., & Muthén, B. (1989). Testing for the equivalence of factor covariance and mean structures: The issue of partial measurement invariance. Psychological Bulletin, 105(3), 456.

  • Caretti, V., Craparo, G., & Schimmenti, A. (2010). La dimensione della vergogna nei disturbi del comportamento alimentare in adolescenza. Infanzia e adolescenza, 9(2), 69–78. https://doi.org/10.1710/506.6058.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cavalera, C., Pepe, A., Zurloni, V., Diana, B., & Realdon, O. (2017a). A short version of the state shame and guilt scale (SSGS-8). TPM-Testing, Psychometrics, Methodology in Applied Psychology, 24(1), 99–106. https://doi.org/10.4473/TPM24.1.6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cavalera, C., Pagnini, F., Zurloni, V., Piazzini, D. B., Realdon, O., Castelnuovo, G., ... & Molinari, E. (2017b). Erratum to: Shame proneness and eating disorders: a comparison between clinical and non-clinical samples (Eating and Weight Disorders-Studies on Anorexia, Bulimia and Obesity (2016), 21, 4, 701–707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40519-016-0328-y).

  • Chen, F. F. (2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 14(3), 464–504. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510701301834.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, F. F. (2008). What happens if we compare chopsticks with forks? The impact of making inappropriate comparisons in cross cultural research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(5), 1005–1018. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013193.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, P. Y., & Popovich, P. M. (2002). Correlation: Parametric and nonparametric measures. Thousands Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9(2), 233–255. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cleary, T. A. (1968). Test bias: Prediction of grades of negro and white students in integrated colleges. Journal of Educational Measurenjent, 5, 115–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Derogatis, L. R. (1994). Symptom Checklist-90-R: Administration, scoring, and procedures manual (3rd ed.). Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Systems.

    Google Scholar 

  • Di Pierro, R., Di Sarno, M., & Madeddu, F. (2017). Investigating the relationship between narcissism and emotion regulation difficulties: The role of grandiose and vulnerable traits. Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 14(3), 209–215.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edelstein, R. S., & Shaver, P. R. (2007). A cross-cultural examination of lexical studies of self-conscious emotions. In J. L. Tracy, R. W. Robins, & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), The self-conscious emotions: Theory and research (pp. 194–208). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Else-Quest, N. M., Higgins, A., Allison, C., & Morton, L. C. (2012). Gender differences in self-conscious emotional experience: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138(5), 947–981. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027930.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, T. J., & Crowley, S. L. (1997). Measure for measure: A multitrait-multimethod analysis of guilt and shame. Journal of Personality Assessment, 69(2), 425–441. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa6902_12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, T. J., & Eyre, H. L. (2000). Engendering gender differences in shame and guilt: Stereotypes, socialization, and situational pressures. In A. H. Fischer (Ed.), Gender and emotion: Social Psycological perspectives (pp. 254–276). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511628191.013.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, T. J., Eyre, H. L., & Ashbaker, M. (2000). Unwanted identities: A key variable in shame–anger links and gender differences in shame. Sex Roles, 42(3/4), 133–157. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007061505251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fessler, D. M. T. (2007). From appeasement to conformity: Evolutionary and cultural perspectives on shame, competition, and cooperation. In J. L. Tracy, R. W. Robins, & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), The self-conscious emotions: Theory and research (pp. 174–193). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finney, S. J., & DiStefano, C. (2013). Non-normal and categorical data in structural equation modeling. In G. R. Hancock & R. O. Mueller (Eds.), Structural equation modeling: A second course (2nd ed., pp. 439–492). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, A. H., Manstead, A. S. R., & Rodriguez Mosquera, P. M. (1999). The role of honour-related vs. individualistic values in conceptualising pride, shame, and anger: Spanish and Dutch cultural prototypes. Cognition and Emotion, 13(2), 149–179. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fossati, A., Feeney, J., Pincus, A., Borroni, S., & Maffei, C. (2015). The structure of pathological narcissism and its relationships with adult attachment styles: A study of Italian nonclinical and clinical adult participants. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 32(3), 403–431. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fossati, A., Somma, A., Borroni, S., Markon, K. E., & Krueger, R. F. (2017a). The personality inventory for DSM-5 brief form: Evidence for reliability and construct validity in a sample of community-dwelling Italian adolescents. Assessment, 24(5), 615–631. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191115621793.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fossati, A., Somma, A., Borroni, S., & Miller, J. D. (2017b). Assessing dimensions of pathological narcissism: Psychometric properties of the short form of the five-factor narcissism inventory in a sample of Italian university students. Journal of Personality Assessment, 24, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2017.1324457.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giacomin, M., & Jordan, C. H. (2016). Self-focused and feeling fine: Assessing state narcissism and its relation to well-being. Journal of Research in Personality, 63, 12–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2016.04.009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goetz, J. L., & Keltner, D. (2007). Shifting meanings of self-conscious emotions across cultures: A social-functional approach. In J. L. Tracy, R. W. Robins, & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), The self-conscious emotions: Theory and research (pp. 153–173). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harder, D. W. (1995). Shame and guilt assessment and relationships of shame and guilt proneness to psychopathology. In J. P. Tangney & K. W. Fisher (Eds.), Self-conscious emotions: The psychology of shame, guilt, embarrassment, and pride (pp. 368–392). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harder, D. W., & Greenwald, D. F. (1999). Further validation of the shame and guilt scales of the Harder personal feelings Questionnaire-2. Psychological Reports, 85, 271–281. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1999.85.1.271.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harder, D. W., & Lewis, S. J. (1987). The assessment of shame and guilt. In J. N. Butcher & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.), Advances in personality assessment (Vol. 6, pp. 89–114). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harder, D. W., & Zalma, A. (1990). Two promising shame and guilt scales: A construct validity comparison. Journal of Personality Assessment, 55(3–4), 729–745. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5503&4_30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harder, D. W., Cutler, L., & Rockart, L. (1992). Assessment of shame and guilt and their relationship to psychopathology. Journal of Personality Assessment, 59(3), 584–604. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5903_12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harder, D. W., Rockart, L., & Cutler, L. (1993). Additional validity evidence for the Harder personal feelings Questionnaire-2 (PFQ2): A measure of shame and guilt proneness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 49(3), 345–348. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(199305)49:3<345::AID-JCLP2270490307>3.0.CO;2-Y.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herring, E. (2018). Does the way we measure shame create a gender difference? Assessment & Development Matters, 10(1), 2–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirschfield, G., & von Brachel, R. (2014). Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis in R – A tutorial in measurement invariance with continuous and ordinal indicators. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 19(7).

  • Hopwood, C. J., & Donnellan, M. B. (2010). How should the internal structure of personality inventories be evaluated? Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14(3), 332–346. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868310361240.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, D. (1989). Model modification in covariance structure analysis: Application of the expected parameter change statistics. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 24(3), 285–305. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr2403_2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keltner, D., & Buswell, B. N. (1996). Evidence for the distinctness of embarrassment, shame, and guilt: A study of recalled antecedents and facial expressions of emotion. Cognition and Emotion, 10, 155–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999396380312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krueger, R. F., Derringer, J., Markon, K. E., Watson, D., & Skodol, A. E. (2013). The personality inventory for DSM-5 – Brief form (PID-5-BF) – Adult. American Psychiatric Association.

  • Kugler, K., & Jones, W. H. (1992). On conceptualizing and assessing guilt. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62(2), 318–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999396380312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, H. B. (1971). Shame and guilt in neurosis. New York, NY: International Universities Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, H. B. (1978). Sex differences in superego mode as related to sex differences in psychiatric illness. Social Science and Medicine, 12, 199–205.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malkin, M. L., Barry, C. T., & Zeigler-Hill, V. (2011). Covert narcissism as a predictor of internalizing symptoms after performance feedback in adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 51, 623–628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.05.031.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., Hau, K. T., & Wen, Z. (2004). In search of golden rules: Comment on hypothesis-testing approaches to setting cutoff values for fit indices and dangers in overgeneralizing Hu and Bentler’s (1999) findings. Structural Equation Modeling, 11, 320–341. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem1103_2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miceli, M., & Castelfranchi, C. (2018). Reconsidering the differences between shame and guilt. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 14(3), 710–733. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v14i3.1564.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J. D., Dir, A., Gentile, B., Wilson, L., Pryor, L. R., & Campbell, W. K. (2010). Searching for a vulnerable dark triad: Comparing factor 2 psychopathy, vulnerable narcissism, and borderline personality disorder. Journal of Personality, 78(5), 1529–1564. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00660.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Montebarocci, O., Surcinelli, P., Baldaro, B., Trombini, E., & Rossi, N. (2004). Narcissism versus proneness to shame and guilt. Psychological Reports, 94, 883–887. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.94.3.883-887.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Leary, J., & Wright, F. (1986). Shame and gender issues in pathological narcissism. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 3, 327–339. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0079120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orth, U., Berking, M., & Burkhardt, S. (2006). Self-conscious emotions and depression: Rumination explains why shame but not guilt is maladaptive. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 1608–1619. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167206292958.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Orth, U., Robins, R. W., & Soto, C. J. (2010). Tracking the trajectory of shame, guilt, and pride across the life span. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 1061–1071. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021342.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peters, J. R., & Geiger, P. J. (2016). Borderline personality disorder and self-conscious affect: Too much shame but not enough guilt? Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 7(3), 303–308. https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pincus, A. L., Ansell, E. B., Pimental, C. A., Cain, N. M., Wright, A. G. C., & Levy, K. N. (2009). Initial construction and validation of the pathological narcissism inventory. Psychological Assessment, 21(3), 365–379. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016530.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poless, P. G., Torstveit, L., Lugo, R. G., Andreassen, M., & Sütterlin, S. (2018). Guilt and proneness to shame: Unethical behaviour in vulnerable and grandiose narcissism. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 14(1), 28–43. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v14i1.1355.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pornprasertmanit, S, Miller, P., Schoemann, A., & Rosseel, Y. (2014). semTools: Useful tools for structural equation modeling. R package version 0.4–6. http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=semTools

  • Prunas, A., Sarno, I., Preti, E., Madeddu, F., & Perugini, M. (2012). Psychometric properties of the Italian version of the SCL-90-R: A study on a large community sample. European Psychiatry, 27, 591–597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2010.12.006.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • R Core Team. (2018). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. In R Foundation for statistical computing. Vienna: Austria. URL https://www.R-project.org/.

    Google Scholar 

  • Revelle, W. (2017). Psych: Procedures for personality and psychological research, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA, https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=psych

  • Ritter, K., Vater, A., Rüsh, N., Schröder-Abé, M., Schütz, A., Fydrich, T., Lammers, C.-H., & Roepke, S. (2014). Shame in patients with narcissistic personality disorder. Psychiatry Research, 215, 429–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2013.11.019.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robins, R. W., Noftle, E. E., & Tracy, J. L. (2007). Assessing self-conscious emotions: A review of self-report and non-verbal measures. In J. L. Tracy, R. W. Robins, & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), The self-conscious emotions: Theory and research (pp. 443–467). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosseel, Y. (2012). Lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1-36. Retrived from http://www.jstatsoft.org/v48/i02/.

  • RStudio Team. (2016). RStudio: Integrated development for R. Boston, MA URL: RStudio, Inc. http://www.rstudio.com/.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rüsh, N., Corrigan, P. W., Bohus, M., Jacob, G. A., Bruek, R., & Lieb, K. (2007a). Measuring shame and guilt by self-report questionnaires: A validation study. Psychiatry Research, 150, 313–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2006.04.018.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rüsh, N., Lieb, K., Göttler, I., Hermann, C., Schramm, E., Richter, H., Jacob, G. A., Corrigan, P. W., & Bohus, M. (2007b). Shame and implicit self-concept in women with borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(3), 500–508. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.164.3.500.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Santarelli, E., & Cottone, F. (2009). Leaving home, family support and intergenerational ties in Italy: Some regional differences. Demographic Research, 21, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2009.21.1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (1994). Corrections to test statistics and standard errors in covariance structure analysis. In A. von Eye & C. C. Clogg (Eds.), Latent variables analysis: Applications for developmental research (pp. 399–419). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schoenleber, M., & Berenbaum, H. (2012). Shame regulation in personality pathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121(2), 433–446. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025281.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schoenleber, M., Roche, M. J., Wetzel, E., Pincus, A. L., & Robert, B. W. (2015). Development of a brief version of the pathological narcissism inventory. Psychological Assessment, 27(4), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz, G. E. (1978). Estimating the dimension of a model. The Annals of Statistics, 6(2), 461–464 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2958889.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shrout, P. E., & Fleiss, J. L. (1979). Intraclass correlations: Uses in assessing rater reliability. Psychological Bulletin, 86(2), 420–428. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.86.2.420.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shulruf, B., Alesi, M., Ciochina, L., Faria, L., Hattie, J., Hong, F., Pepi, A.-M., & Watkins, D. (2011). Measuring collectivism and individualism in the third millennium. Social Behavior and Personality, 39(2), 173–187. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2011.39.2.173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tangney, J. P., Wagner, P. E., Gavlas, J., & Gramzow, R. (1991). The test of self-conscious affect for adolescents (TOSCA-A). Fairfax: George Mason University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tangney, J. P., Wagner, P., & Gramzow, R. (1992). Proneness to shame, proneness to guilt, and psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101(3), 469–478. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.101.3.469.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tangney, J. P., Miller, R. S., Flicker, L., & Barlow, D. H. (1996). Are shame, guilt, and embarrassment distinct emotions? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(6), 1256–1269. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.6.1256.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tangney, J. P., Dearing, R. L., Wagner, P. E., & Gramzow, R. (2000). The test of self-conscious Affect-3 (TOSCA-3). Fairfax: George Mason University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tilghman-Osborne, C., Cole, D. A., & Felton, J. W. (2010). Definition and measurement of guilt: Implications for clinical research and practice. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 536–546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.03.007.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2004). Putting the self into self-conscious emotions: A theoretical model. Psychological Inquiry, 15(2), 103–125. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli1502_01.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tracy, J. L., Robins, R. W., & Tangney, J. P. (Eds.). (2007). The self-conscious emotions: Theory and research. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Den Schoot, R., Schmidt, P., De Beuckelaer, A., Lek, K., & Zondervan-Zwijnenburg, M. (2015). Editorial: Measurement Invariance. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1064. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01064.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Velotti, P., Garofalo, C., Bottazzi, F., & Caretti, V. (2017). Faces of shame: Implications for self-esteem, emotion regulation, aggression, and well-being. The Journal of Psychology, 151(2), 171–184. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2016.1248809.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wallbott, H. G., & Scherer, K. R. (1995). Cultural determinants in experiencing shame and guilt. In J. P. Tangney & K. W. Fisher (Eds.), Self-conscious emotions: The psychology of shame, guilt, embarrassment, and pride (pp. 465–487). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1999). The PANAS-X: Manual for the positive and negative affect schedule-expanded form. Ames: University of Iowa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, S., Gomez, R., & Gullone, E. (2017). The shame and guilt scales of the test of self-conscious affect–adolescent (tosca-a): Factor structure, concurrent and discriminant validity, and measurement and structural invariance across ratings of males and females. Assessment, 24(4), 517–527. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191115608942.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weir, J. P. (2005). Quantifying test-retest reliability using the intraclass correlations coefficient and the SEM. Journal of Strenght and Conditioning Research, 19(1), 231–240. https://doi.org/10.1519/15184.1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, F., O’Leary, J., & Balkin, J. (1989). Shame, guilt, narcissism, and depression: Correlates and sex differences. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 6(2), 217–230. https://doi.org/10.1037/0736-9735.6.2.217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, A. G. C., Stepp, S. D., Scott, L. N., Hallquist, M. N., Beeney, J. E., Lazarus, S. A., & Pilkonis, P. A. (2017). The effect of pathological narcissism on interpersonal and affective processes in social interactions. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126(7), 898–910. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000286.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wurmser, L. (1981). The mask of shame. New York: Aronson.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors thank David Harder for encouraging the use of the PFQ-2 for the present study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza dell’Ateneo Nuovo 1, 20126, Milan, Italy

    Marco Di Sarno, Rossella Di Pierro & Fabio Madeddu

Authors
  1. Marco Di Sarno
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Rossella Di Pierro
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Fabio Madeddu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Marco Di Sarno.

Ethics declarations

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee in charge (reference number RM-2017-115) and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

ESM 1

(DOCX 28 kb)

ESM 2

(DOCX 26 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Di Sarno, M., Di Pierro, R. & Madeddu, F. Shame- and guilt-proneness in an italian sample: Latent structure and gender invariance of the personal feelings questionnaire-2 (PFQ-2). Curr Psychol 41, 276–288 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00570-w

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00570-w

Keywords

Search

Navigation