Abstract
The growing number of students with learning disabilities (LD) in higher education increases the need to understand and address the factors that affect their academic performance. One of these factors is academic procrastination, which affects over 70% of college students, including students with LD. The present study examined the relationship between academic procrastination and academic performance, and the moderating role of LD in this relationship. Findings showed a negative effect of academic procrastination on GPA, and more strongly for students with LD, indicating that a high-level of procrastination might be more harmful for these students’ academic performance. These initial findings contribute to the body of knowledge concerning students with LD in higher education. They emphasize the need to support students with LD in a manner that will address the specific difficulties that may lead to higher rates of procrastination and subsequently lower academic achievement.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Andreassen, R., Jensen, M. S., & Bråten, I. (2017). Investigating self-regulated study strategies among postsecondary students with and without dyslexia: A diary method study. Reading and Writing, 30(9), 1891–1916. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-017-9758-9.
Babakus, E., & Mangold, W. G. (1992). Adapting the SERVQUAL scale to hospital services: An empirical investigation. Health Services Research, 26(6), 767–786.
Baird, G., Scott, W., Dearing, E., & Hamill, S. (2009). Cognitive self-regulation in youth with and without learning disabilities: Academic self-efficacy, theories of intelligence, learning versus performance goal preferences, and effort attributions. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28(7), 881–908. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2009.28.7.881.
Balkis, M. (2013). The relationship between academic procrastination and students’ burnout. Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 28(1), 68–78.
Balkis, M., Duru, E., & Bulus, M. (2013). Analysis of the relation between academic procrastination, academic rational/irrational beliefs, time preferences to study for exams, and academic achievement: A structural model. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 28(3), 825–839. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-012-0142-5.
Bearden, W. O., Netemeyer, R., & Mobley, M. F. (1993). Handbook of marketing scales: Multi-item measures for marketing and consumer behavior research. Newbury Park: Sage.
Boardman, A. G., Vaughn, S., Buckley, P., Reutebuch, C., Roberts, G., & Klingner, J. (2016). Collaborative strategic reading for students with learning disabilities in upper elementary classrooms. Exceptional Children, 82(4), 409–427. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402915625067.
Corkin, D. M., Yu, S. L., Wolters, C. A., & Wiesner, M. (2014). The role of the college classroom climate on academic procrastination. Learning and Individual Differences, 32, 294–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2014.04.001.
Cortiella, C., & Horowitz, S. H. (2014). The State of learning disabilities facts, trends and emerging issues (Third). New-York: National Center for Learning Disabilities. http://dx.doi.org/ncld.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/2014-State-of-LD.pdf.
Dunn, K. (2014). Why wait? The influence of academic self-regulation, intrinsic motivation, and statistics anxiety on procrastination in online statistics. Innovative Higher Education, 39(1), 33–44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-013-9256-1.
Eckert, M., Ebert, D. D., Lehr, D., Sieland, B., & Berking, M. (2016). Overcome procrastination: Enhancing emotion regulation skills reduce procrastination. Learning and Individual Differences, 52, 10–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.001.
Eggens, L., van der Werf, M. P. C., & Bosker, R. J. (2008). The influence of personal networks and social support on study attainment of students in university education. Higher Education, 55(5), 553–573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-007-9074-4.
Fernie, B. A., Bharucha, Z., Nikčević, A. V., Marino, C., & Spada, M. M. (2017). A Metacognitive model of procrastination. Journal of Affective Disorders, 210, 196–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.12.042.
Ferrari, J. R. (2010). Still procrastinating? The no regrets guide to getting it done. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.
Glick, D. M., Millstein, D. J., & Orsillo, S. M. (2014). A preliminary investigation of the role of psychological inflexibility in academic procrastination. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 3, 81–88.
Goroshit, M. (2018). Academic procrastination and academic performance: An initial basis for intervention. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 46(2), 131–142. https://doi.org/10.1080/10852352.2016.1198157.
Grund, A., & Fries, S. (2018). Understanding procrastination: A motivational approach. Personality and Individual Differences, 121, 120–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.09.035.
Grunschel, C., Patrzek, J., & Fries, S. (2013). Exploring reasons and consequences of academic procrastination: An interview study. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 28(3), 841–861. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-012-0143-4.
Häfner, A., Oberst, V., & Stock, A. (2014). Avoiding procrastination through time management: An experimental intervention study. Educational Studies, 40(3), 352–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2014.899487.
Hayes, A. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York: Guilford Press.
Hen, M. (2018). Academic procrastination and feelings toward procrastination in LD and non-LD students: Preliminary insights for future intervention. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 46(2), 199–212. https://doi.org/10.1080/10852352.2016.1198173.
Hen, M., & Goroshit, M. (2014). Academic procrastination, emotional intelligence, academic self-efficacy, and GPA: A comparison between students with and without learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 47(2), 116–124. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219412439325.
Katz, I., Eilot, K., & Nevo, N. (2014). “I’ll do it later”: Type of motivation, self-efficacy and homework procrastination. Motivation and Emotion, 38(1), 111–119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-013-9366-1.
Kim, K. R., & Seo, E. H. (2015). The relationship between procrastination and academic performance: A meta-analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 82, 26–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.02.038.
Kitsantas, A., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2009). College students’ homework and academic achievement: The mediating role of self-regulatory beliefs. Metacognition Learning, 4(2), 97–110.
Klassen, R. M., Krawchuk, L. L., Lynch, S. L., & Rajani, S. (2008a). Procrastination and motivation of undergraduates with learning disabilities: A mixed-methods inquiry. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 23(3), 137–147. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5826.2008.00271.x.
Klassen, R. M., Krawchuk, L. L., & Rajani, S. (2008b). Academic procrastination of undergraduates: Low self-efficacy to self-regulate predicts higher levels of procrastination. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 33(4), 915–931. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2007.07.001.
Klassen, R. M., Ang, R. P., Chong, W. H., Krawchuk, L. L., Huan, V. S., Wong, I. Y. F., & Yeo, L. S. (2009). Academic procrastination in two settings: Motivation correlates, behavioral patterns, and negative impact of procrastination in Canada and Singapore. Applied Psychology, 59(3), 361–379. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2009.00394.x.
Klassen, R. M., Tze, V., & Hannok, W. (2013). Internalizing problems of adults with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 46(4), 317–327. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219411422260.
Klingsieck, K. B., Fries, S., Horz, C., & Hofer, M. (2012). Procrastination in a distance university setting. Distance Education, 33(3), 295–310. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2012.723165.
Krause, K., & Freund, A. M. (2014a). Delay or procrastination – A comparison of self-report and behavioral measures of procrastination and their impact on affective well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 63, 75–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.01.050.
Krause, K., & Freund, A. M. (2014b). How to beat procrastination. European Psychologist, 19(2), 132–144. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000153.
Levy, Y., & Ramim, M. M. (2012). A study of online exams procrastination using data analytics techniques. Interdisciplinary Journal of E-Learning and Learning Objects, 8, 97–113.
Malatincová, T. (2015). The mystery of “should”: Procrastination, delay, and reactance in academic settings. Personality and Individual Differences, 72, 52–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.08.015.
Mann, L. (2016). Procrastination revisited: A commentary. Australian Psychologist, 51(1), 47–51. https://doi.org/10.1111/ap.12208.
Marton-Williams, J. (1986). Questionnaire design. In R. Worcester & J. Downham (Eds.), Consumer market research handbook. London, McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Michinov, N., Brunot, S., Le Bohec, O., Juhel, J., & Delaval, M. (2011). Procrastination, participation, and performance in online learning environments. Computers & Education, 56(1), 243–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.07.025.
Milgram, N. N., & Amir, N. (1998). Academic procrastination in pre-, early and late adolescence. Unpubished report. Tel-Aviv University and the college of Judea and Samaria.
Milgram, N. (. N.)., Mey-Tal, G., & Levison, Y. (1998). Procrastination, generalized or specific, in college students and their parents. Personality and Individual Differences, 25(2), 297–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00044-0.
Nonis, S. A., & Hudson, G. I. (2006). Academic performance of college students: Influence of time spent studying and working. Journal of Education for Business, 81(3), 151–159. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOEB.81.3.151-159.
Odaci, H. (2011). Academic self-efficacy and academic procrastination as predictors of problematic internet use in university students. Computers & Education, 57(1), 1109–1113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.01.005.
Onji, K., & Kikuchi, R. (2011). Procrastination, prompts, and preferences: Evidence from daily records of self-directed learning activities. Journal of Socio-Economics, 40(6), 929–941.
Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Academic procrastination and statistics anxiety. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 29(1), 3–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/0260293042000160384.
Owens, S. G., Bowman, C. G., & Dill, C. A. (2008). Overcoming procrastination: The effect of implementation intentions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 38(2), 366–384.
Pychyl, T. A., & Flett, G. L. (2012). Procrastination and self-regulatory failure: An introduction to the special issue. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 30(4), 203–212. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-012-0149-5.
Rabin, L. A., Fogel, J., & Nutter-Upham, K. E. (2011). Academic procrastination in college students: The role of self-reported executive function. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33(3), 344–357. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2010.518597.
Reed, M. J., Kennett, D. J., Lewis, T., Lund-Lucas, E., Stallberg, C., & Newbold, I. L. (2009). The relative effects of university success courses and individualized interventions for students with learning disabilities. Higher Education Research & Development, 28(4), 385–400. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360903067013.
Reed, M. J., Kennett, D. J., Lewis, T., & Lund-Lucas, E. (2011). The relative benefits found for students with and without learning disabilities taking a first-year university preparation course. Active Learning in Higher Education, 12(2), 133–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/1469787411402483.
Rice, K. G., Richardson, C. M. E., & Clark, D. (2012). Perfectionism, procrastination, and psychological distress. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59(2), 288–302. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026643.
Rosenberg, M. S., Bott, D., Majsterek, D., Chiang, B., Gartland, D., Wesson, C., et al. (1992). Minimum standards for the description of participants in learning disabilities research. Learning Disability Quarterly, 15(1), 65–70.
Schraw, G., Wadkins, T., & Olafson, L. (2007). Doing the things we do: A grounded theory of academic procrastination. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(1), 12–25. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.1.12.
Sirois, F. M. (2014a). Out of sight, out of time? A meta-analytic investigation of procrastination and time perspective. European Journal of Personality, 28(5), 511–520. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.1947.
Sirois, F. M. (2014b). Procrastination and stress: Exploring the role of self-compassion. Self and Identity, 13(2), 128–145. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2013.763404.
Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the priority of short-term mood regulation: Consequences for future self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011.
Sparks, R. L., & Lovett, B. J. (2009). College students with learning disability diagnoses: Who are they and how do they perform? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42(6), 494–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219409338746.
Sparks, R. L., & Lovett, B. J. (2014). Learning disability documentation in higher education. Learning Disability Quarterly, 37(1), 54–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731948713486888.
Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65.
Steel, P., & Klingsieck, K. B. (2016). Academic procrastination: Psychological antecedents revisited. Australian Psychologist, 51(1), 36–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/ap.12173.
Stewart, M., Stott, T., & Nuttall, A.-M. (2016). Study goals and procrastination tendencies at different stages of the undergraduate degree. Studies in Higher Education, 41(11), 2028–2043. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2015.1005590.
Trainin, G., & Swanson, H. L. (2005). Cognition, metacognition, and achievement of college students with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 28(4), 261–272. https://doi.org/10.2307/4126965.
Troiano, P. F., Liefeld, J. A., & Trachtenberg, J. V. (2010). Academic support and college success for postsecondary students with learning disabilities. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 40(2), 35–44.
Visser, L., Korthagen, F. A. J., & Schoonenboom, J. (2018). Differences in learning characteristics between students with high, average, and low levels of academic procrastination: Students’ views on factors influencing their learning. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00808.
Wolters, C. A., Won, S., & Hussain, M. (2017). Examining the relations of time management and procrastination within a model of self-regulated learning. Metacognition and Learning, 12(3), 381–399. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-017-9174-1.
Yerdelen, S., McCaffrey, A., & Klassen, R. M. (2016). Longitudinal examination of procrastination and anxiety, and their relation to self-efficacy for self-regulated learning: Latent growth curve modeling. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 16(1), 5–22. https://doi.org/10.12738/estp.2016.1.0108.
Zacks, S., & Hen, M. (2018). Academic interventions for academic procrastination: A review of the literature. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 46(2), 117–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/10852352.2016.1198154.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
All the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest in pursuing this publication.
Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent
This article does not contain any studies or experiments with animals.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Goroshit, M., Hen, M. Academic procrastination and academic performance: Do learning disabilities matter?. Curr Psychol 40, 2490–2498 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00183-3
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00183-3