Skip to main content

Intrapersonal Variables Associated with Academic Adjustment in United States College Students

Current Psychology volume 38, pages 40–49 (2019)Cite this article

Abstract

The current study sampled students from a college in the United States Midwest, and examined the independent predictive strength of a variety of intrapersonal factors (alcohol use, procrastination, perfectionism, perceived level of stress, and coping style) with academic adjustment while controlling for academic motivation. These relations were also examined for moderation by academic motivation. The sample consisted of 273 college students, ranging in age from 18 to 25. Motivation contributed a significant amount of variance in predicting academic adjustment, and the examined predictor variables explained a significant amount of additional variance above that of motivation. Amotivation moderated associations of multiple intrapersonal variables with academic adjustment.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

References

  • American College Health Association. (2009). National College Health Assessment. http://www.achancha.org/reports_ACHA-NCHAII.html. Retrieved 30 July 2012.

  • Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: a theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5), 469–480. doi:10.1037//0003-066x.55.5.469.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aspinwall, L. G., & Taylor, S. E. (1992). Modeling cognitive adaptation: a longitudinal investigation of the impact of individual differences and coping on college adjustment and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(6), 989–1003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Babor, T. F., Higgins-Bidlle, J. C., Saunders, J. B., & Monteiro, M. G. (2001). Audit: the alcohol use disorders identification test. Guidelines for use in primary care (Second ed.). Geneva: World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baer, J. S., Kivlahan, D. R., & Marlatt, G. A. (1995). High-risk drinking across the transition from high school to college. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 19(1), 54–61. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.1995.tb01472.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baker, R., & Siryk, B. (1989). SACQ: student adaptation to college questionnaire manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, S. E., Miller, L., & Bishop, B. A. (2011). Increasing student engagement with a motivational interviewing strategy. In R. L. Miller, E. Amsel, B. Marsteller Kowalewski, B. C. Beins, K. D. Keith, B. F. Peden, & B. F. Peden (Eds.), Promoting student engagement (Vol 1): programs, techniques and opportunities (pp. 162–165). Washington, DC: Society for the Teaching of Psychology.

  • Brady-Amoon, P., & Fuertes, J. N. (2011). Self-efficacy, self-rated abilities, adjustment, and academic performance. Journal of Counseling & Development, 89(4), 431–438. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.2011.tb02840.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burnam, A., Komarraju, M., Hamel, R, & Nadler, D.R. (2014). Do adaptive perfectionism and selfdetermined motivation reduce academic procrastination? Learning and Individual Differences, 36, 165–172.

  • Carver, C. S. (1997). You want to measure coping but your protocol’s too long: consider the brief cope. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4(1), 92–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: a theoretically based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(2), 267–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cerino, E. S. (2014). Relationships between academic motivation, self-efficacy, and academic procrastination. Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research, 19(4), 156–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, E.C. (2000). Perfectionism as a predictor of positive and negative psychological outcomes: Examining a mediation model in younger and older adults. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47(1), 18-26.

  • Chowning, K., & Campbell, N. J. (2009). Development and validation of a measure of academic entitlement: individual differences in students’ externalized responsibility and entitled expectations. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(4), 982–997. doi:10.1037/a0016351.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S. (1986). Contrasting the hassles scale and the perceived stress scale: Who’s really measuring appraised stress? American Psychologist, 41(6), 716–718.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Currie, L. K., Pisarik, C. T., Ginter, E. J., Glauser, A. S., Hayes, C., & Smit, J. C. (2012). Life-skills as a predictor of academic success: an exploratory study. Psychological Reports, 111(1), 157–164. doi:10.2466/11.04.17.PR0.111.4.157-164.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daeppen, J. B., Yersin, B., Landry, U., Pecoud, A., & Decrey, H. (2000). Reliability and validity of the alcohol use disorders identification test (audit) imbedded within a general health risk screening questionnaire: results of a survey in 332 primary care patients. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 24, 659–665.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, B. A., & Mandel, R. G. (2011). Motivation predictors of college student academic performance and retention. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory and Practice, 13(1), 1–15. doi:10.2190/CS.13.1.a.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frydenberg, E., & Lewis, R. (2009). Relations among well-being, avoidant coping, and active coping in a large sample of Australian adolescents. Psychological Reports, 104(3), 745–758. doi:10.2466/PR0.104.3.745-758.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Galatzer-Levy, I. R., & Bonanno, G. A. (2013). Heterogeneous patterns of stress over the four years of college: associations with anxious attachment and ego-resiliency. Journal of Personality, 81(5), 476–486. doi:10.1111/jopy.12010.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gall, T. L., Evans, D. R., & Bellerose, S. (2000). Transition to first-year university: patterns of change in adjustment across life domains and time. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19(4), 544–567.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gerdes, H., & Mallinckrodt, B. (1994). Emotional, social, and academic adjustment of college students: a longitudinal study of retention. Journal of Counseling & Development, 72(3), 281–288. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.1994.tb00935.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giancola, J.K., Grawitch, M.J., & Borchert, D. (2009). Dealing with the stress of college: A model for adult students. Adult Education Quarterly 59(3), 246-263.

  • Grzegorek, J. L., Slaney, R. B., Franze, S., & Rice, K. G. (2004). Self-criticism, dependency, self-esteem, and grade point average satisfaction among clusters of perfectionists and nonperfectionists. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51(2), 192–200. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.51.2.192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hardre, P. L., & Reeve, J. (2003). A motivational model of rural students’ intentions to persist in, versus drop out of, high school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(2), 347–356. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.2.347.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hicks, T., & Heastie, S. (2008). High school to college transition: a profile of the stressors, physical and psychological health issues that affect the first-year on-campus college student. College of Cultural Diversity, 15(3), 143–147.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howell, A.J., Watson, D.C., Powell, R.A., & Buro, K. (2006). Academic procrastination: the pattern and correlates of behavioural postponement. Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 1519–1530.

  • Jackson, T., Weiss, K. E., Lundquist, J. J., & Hooper, D. (2003). The impact of hope, procrastination, and social activity on academic performance of Midwestern college students. Education, 124(2), 310–320.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2009). Monitoring the future: national survey results on drug use, 1975–2008: volume ii, college students and adults ages 19–50 (NIH publication no. 09–7403). Bethesda: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joo, S., Durband, D.B., & Grable, J. (2009). The Academic Impact of Financial Stress on College Students. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 10 (3), 287-305.

  • Kadison, R., & DiGeronimo, T. F. (2004). College of the overwhelmed: the campus mental health crisis and what to do about it. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klassen, R.M., Krawchuk, L.L. & Rajani, S. (2008). Academic procrastination of undergraduates: Low selfefficacy to self-regulate predicts higher levels of procrastination. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 33, 915-931.

  • Krieg, D. B. (2013). High expectations for higher education? Perceptions of college and experiences of stress prior to and through the college career. College Student Journal, 47(4), 635–643.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lay, C. H., & Schouwenburg, H. C. (1993). Trait procrastination, time management, and academic behavior. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 8(4), 647–662.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lim, H., Heckman, S. J., Letkiewicz, J. C., & Montalto, C. P. (2014). Financial stress, self-efficacy, and financial help-seeking behavior of college students. Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, 25(2), 148–160.

    Google Scholar 

  • McHoskey, J. W. (1999). Machiavellianism, intrinsic versus extrinsic goals, and social interest: a self-determination theory analysis. Motivation and Emotion, 23(4), 267–283. doi:10.1023/A:1021338809469.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neighbors, C., Larimer, M. E., Markman Geisner, I., & Knee, C. R. (2004). Feeling controlled and drinking motives among college students: contingent self-esteem as a mediator. Self and Identity, 3(3), 207–224. doi:10.1080/13576500444000029.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. (2013). Education at a Glance 2013: OECD Indicators. OECD Publishing. Retrieved from doi:10.1787/eag-2013-en.

  • Paul, E. L., & Brier, S. (2001). Friendsickness in the transition to college: precollege predictors and college adjustment correlates. Journal of Counseling & Development, 79(1), 77–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pew Research Center .(2014). The rising cost of not going to college. http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2014/02/11/the-rising-cost-of-not-going-to-college. Retrieved 10 Oct 2016.

  • Pritchard, M. E., & Wilson, G. S. (2003). Using emotional and social factors to predict student success. Journal of College Student Development, 44(1), 18–28. doi:10.1353/csd.2003.0008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rice, K. G., & Mirzadeh, S. A. (2000). Perfectionism, attachment, and adjustment. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47(2), 238–250. doi:10.1037//0022-0167.47.2.238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rice, K. G., & Slaney, R. B. (2002). Clusters of perfectionists: two studies of emotional adjustment and academic achievement. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 35(1), 35–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, M., Abraham, C., & Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138(2), 353–387. doi:10.1037/a0026838.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sasaki, M., & Yamasaki, K. (2007). Stress coping and the adjustment process among university freshmen. Counseling Psychology Quarterly, 20(1), 51–67. doi:10.1080/09515070701219943.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schouwenburg, H. C. (1995). Academic procrastination: Theoretical notions, measurement, and research. In J. R. Ferrari and J. L. Johnson (Eds.), Procrastination and task avoidance: Theory, research, and treatment (pp. 71-96). New York: Plenum Press.

  • Shields, N. (2001). Stress, active coping, and academic performance among persisting and nonpersisting college students. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 6(2), 65–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singleton, R. A. (2007). Collegiate alcohol consumption and academic performance. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 68(4), 548–555.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singleton, R. J., & Wolfson, A. R. (2009). Alcohol consumption, sleep, and academic performance among college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 70(3), 355–363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slaney, R. B., Ashby, J. S., & Trippi, J. (1995). Perfectionism: its measurement and career relevance. Journal of Career Assessment, 3(4), 279–297. doi:10.1177/106907279500300403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slaney, R. B., Rice, K. G., & Ashby, J. S. (2002). A programmatic approach to measuring perfectionism: the almost perfect scales. In G. L. Flett, P. L. Hewitt, G. L. Flett, & P. L. Hewitt (Eds.), Perfectionism: theory, research, and treatment (pp. 63–88). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/10458-003.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: a meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stoeber, J., & Otto, K. (2006). Positive conceptions of perfectionism: approaches, evidence, challenges. [review]. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(4), 295–319. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tinto, V. (1982). Limits of theory and practice in student attrition. Journal of Higher Education, 53, 687–700. doi:10.2307/1981525.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tuckman, B. W. (1991). The development and concurrent validity of the procrastination scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 51, 473–480.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2011). http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=98. Retrieved 26 Feb 2012.

  • Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., Blais, M. R., Briere, N. M., Senecal, C., & Vallieres, E. F. (1992). The academic motivation scale: a measure of intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation in education. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52(4), 1003–1017. doi:10.1177/0013164492052004025.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., Blais, M. R., Briere, N. M., Senecal, C., & Vallieres, E. F. (1993). On the assessment of intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation in education: evidence on the concurrent and construct validity of the academic motivation scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53(1), 159–172. doi:10.1177/0013164493053001018.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vallerand, R. J., Fortier, M. S., & Guay, F. (1997). Self-determination and persistence in a real-life setting: toward a motivational model of high school dropout. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(5), 1161–1176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Eerde, W. (2003). A meta-analytically derived nomological network of procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 1401–1418.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, G. S., Pritchard, M. E., & Revalee, B. (2005). Individual differences in adolescent health symptoms: the effects of gender and coping. Journal of Adolescence, 28(3), 369–379. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2004.08.004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wintre, M. G., & Yaffe, M. (2000). First-year students’ adjustment to university life as a function of relationships with parents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 15(1), 9–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 345 College of Education, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, 48202, USA

    Sonja Montgomery, David H. Gregg, Cheryl L. Somers, Francesca Pernice-Duca & Alan Hoffman

  2. Department of Psychology, Wayne State University, 5057 Woodward Ave., Rm. 8306.3, Detroit, MI, 48202, USA

    Marjorie Beeghly

Authors
  1. Sonja Montgomery
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. David H. Gregg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Cheryl L. Somers
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Francesca Pernice-Duca
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Alan Hoffman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Marjorie Beeghly
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Cheryl L. Somers.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

All contributing authors to this study (SM, DG, CLS, AF, FD, & MB) declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Funding

This study had no external funding.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Assent was obtained from all participants and their primary caregivers provided written informed consent.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Montgomery, S., Gregg, D.H., Somers, C.L. et al. Intrapersonal Variables Associated with Academic Adjustment in United States College Students. Curr Psychol 38, 40–49 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-016-9533-0

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-016-9533-0

Keywords

  • Emerging adults
  • Motivation
  • Academic adjustment
  • Coping
  • Stress
  • Procrastination
  • Perfectionism
  • Alcohol