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The Making of a Christian aristocracy: A response to Ralph Mathisen’s review article

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  1. Mathisen wrote a brief review of my book for The American Historical Review 108 (2003), p. 235, and then chose to review it at length in this journal, “The Christianization of the Late Roman Senatorial Order: Circumstances and Scholarship,” Inernational Journal of the Classical Tradition 9 (2002–2003), 257–278.

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  2. R. Von Haehling, Die Religionszugehörigkeit der hohen Amtsträger des römischen Reiches seit Constantins I. Alleinherrschaft bis zum Ende der theodosianischen Dynastie (324–450 bzw. 455 n. Chr.), Antiquitas: Reihe 3, Abhandlungen zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte, zur klassischen und provinzialrömischen Archäologie und zur Geschichte des Altertums 23 (Bonn: Habelt, 1978).

  3. G. Disselkamp, “Christiani Senatus Lumina”: Zum Anteil römischer Frauen der Oberschicht im 4. und 5. Jahrhundert an der Christianisierung der römischen Senatsaristokratie, Theophaneia 34 (Bodenheim [Germany]: Philo, 1997).

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  4. E. Babbie, The Practice of Social Research, 4th edition (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1986), p. 144.

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  5. Salzman (2002), pp. 232–233; 142‐143 for discussion and bibliography.

  6. Cf. W. Scheidel, “Roman Age Structure: Evidence and Models,” The Journal of Roman Studies 91 (2001), pp. 1–26, for an enlightening treatment of how representative are data sets drawn from ancient evidence, although his discussion is based on different data sets and quantitative studies concerning Roman age structure.

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  7. E. Babbie (1986) (above, n.4), p. 144.

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  8. Eucherius 3, PLRE 2. 405, a bishop after my time period, supports my view of the Gallic elites turning to episcopal careers in the fifth century. He and his wife Galla could be included nonetheless.

  9. E. K. Chrysos, “Die angebliche ‘Nobilitierung’ des Klerus durch Kaiser Konstantin den Grossen,” Historia 18 (1969), pp. 116–129.

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  10. C. Rapp, Holy Bishops in Late Antiquity. The Nature of Christian Leadership in an Age of Transition, The Transformation of the Classical Heritage 37 (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 2005), pp. 236–237; T. Klauser, Der Ursprung der bischöflichen Insignien und Ehrenrechte, Bonner Akademische Reden 1 (Krefeld: Scherpe-Verlag, 1949; 2nd ed., 1953).

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  11. C. Rapp (2005) (above, n. 10),, p. 237 on the study by E. Jerg, Vir venerabilis: Untersuchungen zur Titulatur der Bischöfe in den ausserkirchlichen Texten der Spätantike als Beitrag zur Deutung ihrer öffentlichen Stellung, Wiener Beiträge zur Theologie 16 (Vienna: Herder, 1970).

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  12. For the failure of Valentinian's attempted reforms for the defensor and the likelihood that the defensor was now drawn from local elites, see R. M. Frakes, Contra potentium iniurias: the ‘defensor civitatis’ and late Roman justice, Münchener Beiträge zur Paprusforschung und antiken Rechtsgeschichte 90 (Munich: Beck, 2001), pp. 121–193.

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  13. The Theodosian Code and Novels and the Sirmondian Constitutions, trans. by C. Pharr, Corpus juris Romani 1 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1952), p. 33, n. 35 on C. Th. 1.29.6.

  14. Salzman (2002), p. 341 n. 35 cites W. Kuhoff, Studien zur zivilen senatorischen Laufbahn im 4. Jahrhundert n. Chr. Ämter und Amtsinhaber in Clarissimat und Spektabilität, Europäische Hochschulschriften: Reihe 3, Geschichte und ihre Hilfswissenschaften 162 (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1983), p. 255.

  15. Salzman (2002), p. 341 n. 35 citing A. Chastagnol, “La carrière sénatoriale du Bas-Empire (depuis Dioclétien),” in: Epigrafia e ordine senatorio: Atti del Colloquio Internazionale AIEGL 1 (Rome: Edizioni di storia e letteratura, 1982), pp. 167–94. To clarify Chastagnol's position on the mixing of career paths as being frequent in the late fourth and early fifth century, I cite from that article, p. 177: “Après 395, les Romains parcourent une carrière soit entièrement traditionnelle, soit entièrement bureaucratique, soit mixte. Le mélange des echelons des deux carrières est désormais une donnée très fréquente.”

  16. R. Markus, The End of Ancient Christianity (Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press 1990), cited by M. n. 13 and passim; A.D. Nock, Conversion: The Old and the New in Religion from Alexander the Great to Augustine of Hippo (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1933), cited by M. n. 9 and passim.

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  17. Markus (1990) (above, n. 16) pp. 27–28. The italics in this quote are my addition.

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  18. On Bishops' careers, see now C. Rapp (2005) (above, n. 10),, pp. 188–195.

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  19. C. J. Hefele, A History of the Christian Councils from the Original Documents to the Close of the Council of Nicaea, A.D. 325, Vols. 1–3, translated from the German by W. R. Clark (Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1871) on Canon 56, Vol. 1, p. 161; quote is from Hefele, Vol. 1, p. 187. Canon 59 (Hefele, Vol. 1, p. 163), prohibited Christians from, ascending the Capitolia to participate in sacrifice, another requirement of public office at the time. (See in the German original, Conciliengeschichte [Freiburg i. Br.: Herder], Vol. 1 [1873], pp. 176, and 177–178, respectively.)

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  20. H. Drake, Constantine and the Bishops: The Politics of Intolerance, ser. Ancient Society and History (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), pp. 230–231; see Hefele Vol. 1 (1871) (above, n. 19) C. J. Hefele, A History of the Christian Councils from the Original Documents to the Close of the Council of Nicaea, A.D. 325, Vols. 1–3, translated from the German by W. R. Clark (Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1871) pp. 187–188 (=German original, Vol. 1, pp. 208–209).

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  21. Siricius, Ep. 5.3, 6.1; Innocent, Ep. 2.2 (the same rule as Siricius Ep. 5.3), and cf. Inn. Ep 37.3. For the justification for this position, see Canon 4, PL 13.1148–1149=Canon 10, Hefele, Vol. 2 (1871) (above, n. 19), p. 429 (=German original, Vol. 2 [1875], p. 88) from a Roman Synod under Innocent held at Rome in 402 in response to questions from Gallic bishops.

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  22. Council of Toledo, Canon 8, dated to 400 by Hefele, Vol. 2 (1871) (above, n. 19), p. 420 (=German original, Vol. 2, p. 79). A. H. M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284–602: A Social, Economic and Administrative Survey, Vol. 2 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1964; rept. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), p. 924 dates the Council to 401. Jones' n. 137, p. 1386 supplies the full Latin text which indicates, as Hefele's translation omits, that this ban applies to officials as well as those in the military.

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  23. Caesarius of Arles, Ep. Ad Gallos 10: eos praeterea qui saecularem adepti potestatem ius saeculi exercuerint immunes a peccato esse non posse manifestum est. Caesarius continues to explain: Dum enim et gladius exeritur aut iudicium confertur iniustum aut tormenta exercentur per necessitatem causarum aut parandis exhibent voluptatibus curam aut praeparatis intersunt. See too Pope Symmachus, Ep. 15.11.

  24. There was also hesitation on the part of Christians to serve in the military, as attested by the Synod of Arles held in 314, Canon 3, discussed by Hefele, Vol. 1 (1871) (above, n. 19) pp. 185–186 (=German original, Vol. 1, pp. 206–207).

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  1. Department of History, University of California, Riverside

    Michele Salzman

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Salzman, M. The Making of a Christian aristocracy: A response to Ralph Mathisen’s review article. Int class trad 12, 123–137 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12138-005-0013-4

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