Introduction

In migrant integration studies, the inclusion of individuals in the labour market is often considered a central aspect of integration in society (see, e.g. Yijälä & Luoma, 2019). Employment provides individuals with income, social identity, social connections and the opportunity to contribute to the host society’s economy (Baglioni & Calo, 2023). When surveyed, migrants in Finland themselves also consider employment as the most important single aspect of integration (Migrant barometer 2012, 2013). However, migrants often encounter various difficulties in entering the labour market, leading to lower participation rates and more precarious positions than native citizens (Bagavos et al., 2023). Our study focuses on Finland, where central barriers to labour market integration among migrants include a lack of language skills (Karayilan et al., 2017; Korhonen, 2014; Tarnanen & Pöyhönen, 2011), difficulties in getting previous qualifications and work experiences recognised (Kyhä, 2006, 2011; OECD, 2018; Paakkinen, 2016), limited country-specific knowledge of the labour market (Bontenbal & Lillie, 2019), limited networks (Ahmad, 2015; Korhonen, 2014; Martelin et al., 2020; Shumilova et al., 2012) and experiences of discrimination (Ahmad, 2020a). Similar barriers have been identified in other European contexts as well (see, e.g. Bontenbal & Lillie, 2019).

Various studies have looked into how migrants can overcome barriers to labour market integration and ways they can (or cannot) acquire the skills, networks and experiences needed in the labour market, through participating, for example, in integration training (Ala-Kauhaluoma et al., 2018; Sarvimäki & Hämäläinen, 2016), NGOs (Saksela-Bergholm, 2011), internships and volunteering (Greenspan et al., 2018; Bontenbal et al., 2023) or education (Kärkkäinen, 2017; Ismail, 2019). This research presents a new perspective on integration, studying the potential impact of participation in conscript service on the labour market integration of migrants. We ask how conscripts with a migrant background perceive that the skills and experiences gained during conscript service may influence their inclusion in the labour market and assist them in overcoming existing barriers to labour market integration?

In Finland, conscript service is part of young men’s traditional life trajectory. It is a significant event in the life-course pattern, which removes individuals from the civilian labour market and/or from educational paths for a set time of months (Poutvaara, 2010). Previous studies (not focused particularly on migrants) have demonstrated that participating in conscript service influences the future lives of young individuals in Finland in various ways. Military service has been found to impact future education and career paths, as well as income levels (Alho & Nikula, 2012). Successful completion of conscript service and participation in reserve officer training have been associated with an increased likelihood of finding employment and achieving success in working life (Alho & Nikula, 2012; Elovainio et al., 2001). Additionally, conducting reserve officer training has been linked to increase future income levels (Alho & Nikula, 2012). However, conscript service has also been found to hinder and slow down individuals’ return to studies and groundwork for entrance exams (Laaksonen, 2004; Uusitalo, 2011).

Moreover, social contacts formed during conscript service can be beneficial after conscript service. A previous study, for instance, found that dormmates during conscript service may have long-term contributions to earnings and success in working life due to beneficial labour market networks built during military service (Einiö, 2019). These social contacts can prove to be valuable and useful for future employment and career advancement (Uusitalo, 2011). When surveyed, approximately 50% of conscripts believe that conducting conscript service will benefit them in their working life (Nivalainen & Hopponen, 2010).

While prior studies have suggested that military service influences the educational and career paths of participants in various ways, there has been a notable absence of research specifically focused on its effects on individuals with a migrant background. Existing studies are mainly from a US context, conducted in a quantitative manner and focused on the relationship between military service and subsequent economic performance (see, e.g. Richard & Wilhite, 1990; Teachman, 2004; Teachman & Tedrow, 2007). These studies suggest that military service can advance the socioeconomic position of ethnic minorities (Browning et al., 1973), although it no longer generates the same advantages to minorities as it did previously (Kleykamp, 2007). It should be noted that previous studies have mainly been conducted in professional military contexts, in which the conditions are greatly different; also, the time in service is significantly longer than it is in Finland. An exception to this is a recent survey study conducted in the context of conscript service in Switzerland. According to this study, conscripts with a migrant background evaluated the positive benefits of conscript service for civilian life higher than conscripts without a migration background. Conscripts with a migrant background also evaluated their chances on the labour market as improved more often after conscript service than conscripts without a migration background (De Rosa & Szvircsev Tresch, 2022). However, migrants’ perspectives on the benefits of conscript service have not yet been studied qualitatively. This paper focuses on qualitatively analysing the skills and experiences acquired during mandatory conscript service, thus offering new insight into the integration of migrants.

The paper is structured as follows: First, barriers to labour market integration in Finland are discussed based on previous studies. Second, an overview of the military context in Finland is provided including information on performing conscript service. This is followed by a description of the method used in the research, after which comes the analysis. The analysis is structured according to five different barriers to labour market integration and how participation in military conscript service can help to overcome these barriers. Finally, the results are discussed, and some overarching conclusions are made.

Migrants in the Finnish Labour Market—Identified Barriers to Overcome

Similarly to many other European countries, the labour market situation for migrants in Finland presents room for improvement. Migrants have had higher unemployment rates compared to native citizens (VATT, 2014; Busk et al., 2016; Belegri-Roboli et al., 2018), resulting in lower income levels as well (Busk et al., 2016; Sarvimäki, 2011). The labour market position of migrant women is particularly inferior, and employment rates among migrant women are significantly lower compared to women at large in society (Larja & Sutela, 2015a, 2015b; Martelin et al., 2020). The labour market position of migrants has, however, been improving in recent years (Muhonen, 2023). Nevertheless, this varies greatly across migrant groups. Especially third-country nationals (from outside Europe) tend to have a poorer position in the labour market and lower employment rates. Furthermore, third-country nationals are often employed in precarious, part- and short-term contracts as well as ethnicised occupationsFootnote 1 (Heikkilä, 2005; Näre, 2013; Ahmad, 2015; Maury, 2020; Ndomo et al., 2022). Specific sectors, such as health care, transportation and cleaning, have a high concentration of migrant labour (Vartiainen et al., 2016).

Previous studies have identified several barriers hindering the labour market inclusion of migrants. A lack of language skills is commonly defined as one of the most significant barriers to the labour market integration of migrants in Finland (Karayilan et al., 2017). Migrants arriving in Finland typically do not speak Finnish in advance, and learning the language is often perceived as a challenging task due to its substantial linguistic differences from many other languages. For instance, despite the considerable number of hours dedicated to language learning in integration training, 28% of language course participants have been found to possess only beginner-level language skills or less (OECD, 2018, 28). Fluency in Finnish is a crucial requirement for most employers, and regrettably, language skills are sometimes utilised as a basis for discrimination, leading to the exclusion of migrants from employment opportunities (Ndomo et al., 2022).

In addition to a lack of language skills, a lack of country-specific knowledge about the labour market has also been identified as a significant barrier to the labour market integration of migrants (Bontenbal & Lillie, 2019). Particularly during the first years after arriving in Finland, some migrants are unaware of relevant Finnish national and local institutions, such as the employment office, which are crucial for effective job search and recruitment (Ndomo et al., 2022). Insufficient knowledge about the Finnish labour market, including collective agreements,Footnote 2 can also contribute to migrants being more susceptible to exploitation and discrimination. Many migrants originate from countries with different labour regulations than those in Finland, leading to a lack of awareness regarding employees’ rights and how to assert them (Bontenbal & Lillie, 2020).

In Finland, a substantial number of migrants find employment or work in occupations that do not align with their level of education (Baumgartner, 2023; Larja & Sutela, 2015a, 2015b). A significant barrier to entering the Finnish labour market is the lack of recognition of qualifications and work experiences (Kyhä, 2006, 2011; OECD, 2018; Paakkinen, 2016). As a result of the lack of recognition, third-country nationals are especially overrepresented in low-skilled job positions within the service sector, characterised by minimal or very basic skill requirements, low wages and precarious atypical forms of employment (Ndomo & Lillie, 2020). Many migrants also pursue re-education. In other words, they either choose a new study and career path or seek to reattain the same degree as they had previously obtained, this time in a Finnish education institution (Bontenbal & Lillie, 2021).

A lack of social networks has also been identified as a significant barrier to the labour market inclusion of migrants (Arthur & Popadiuk, 2013). Social contacts play an important role in helping individuals access information about available employment options and opportunities. For migrants, social contacts are particularly vital in their search for employment due to their generally more precarious position in the labour market, which leads them to turn to friends and family to find job opportunities. Social contacts to the majority population, referred to as “bridging social ties”, have been identified as especially important for finding employment (Alho, 2020; Ministry of the Interior, 2015). Lack of these bridging ties, on the other hand, is the second-most common barrier to employment (after lack of language skills) according to migrants in Finland (Martelin et al., 2020). However, migrants often rely on their social contacts with other migrants, as building a network of social contacts among native citizens is found to be difficult (Koskela, 2014; Li & Pitkänen, 2018; Tiilikainen, 2000). Due to the generally disadvantaged position of migrants in the labour market, they are more likely to be aware of job opportunities in the secondary labour market, which can then lead to workplace segregation (OECD, 2018).

Besides the above-mentioned factors, discrimination also poses a significant hindrance to the labour market integration of migrants. Despite legal provisions prohibiting discrimination, discrimination occurs widely. Various studies provide evidence that migrants frequently face discrimination during job-seeking processes, resulting in the reduced likelihood of being selected for job interviews and employment contracts (Ahmad, 2020a; Larja et al., 2012; Liebkind et al., 2016). Second generation migrants are found to struggle with many similar barriers to labour market integration as first-generation migrants in Finland (see, e.g. Ahmad, 2020b).

Context of the Study: Military Service and Migrants in Finland

In the Finnish context, military service plays a significant role in the lives of youngsters (Jokinen, 2000; Ojajärvi, 2015; Puustinen et al., 2018; Kosonen, 2019; Kosonen & Mälkki, 2022). Unlike several European countries, Finland has maintained mandatory conscript service (Kosonen, 2019; Kosonen & Mälkki, 2022). Every male Finnish citizen is liable for military service starting from the beginning of the year in which he turns 18 years old until the end of the year in which he turns 60 (Conscription Act 2 §). Depending on the branch and training, conscript service lasts 165, 255 or 347 days. A considerable proportion of each male age cohort thus spend 6–12 months together with other young people of similar age intensively doing various military courses and trainings. Generally, youngsters conduct their service just before entering their study paths and before their working life begins. In 1995, voluntary military service for women was introduced, and the number of female conscripts has remained around 3–5% of the approximately 23,500 annual conscripts (Defence Command, 2020). On average, 60–65% of each male age cohort complete their mandatory conscript service (Finnish Defence Forces, 2022). In Finland, completing conscript service is also the sole pathway to a career as a professional soldier. Instead of completing military service, a conscript can apply for non-military service, lasting for 12 months, based on conscientious reasons (Non-Military Service Act). Among young people, there exists a strong socio-normative pressure to choose and complete conscript service at the call-up age (Kosonen, 2019), and only about 6% conduct non-military civil service. In this paper, the focus is on military conscript service.

The number of migrants in Finland has grown steadily and significantly over recent decades. Currently, people with a foreign background comprise approximately 8.5% of the population, with 75% of these individuals within the working age, in contrast to 60% of native Finns (Statistics Finland, 2022a). The majority of people with a foreign background have migrated from neighbouring countries such as Sweden, Estonia, Russia and the Former Soviet Union. However, the number of third-country nationals has significantly increased during recent decades. Apart from the aforementioned countries, other common countries of birth include Iraq, China, Somalia, Thailand, India, Vietnam and Turkey (Statistics Finland, 2022b).

Foreign nationals are eligible to apply for Finnish citizenship after they have lived in the country continuously for 5 years. However, the duration of stay requirement is shorter for spouses of Finnish nationals, Nordic citizens and refugees. Dual nationality is permitted in Finland. Notably, in 2021, nearly half of those applying for Finnish nationality were under 30 years old (Statistics Finland, 2023a). This is noteworthy, as 30 years old is the age limit for mandatory conscript or non-military service in Finland. Individuals above this age are no longer obligated nor have the possibility to participate in conscript service in Finland.

Method

The empirical research material for this study comprises 24 interviews, conducted between September 2022 and March 2023. Of the 24 interviewees, 22 were men and two were women. The interviewees consisted of 17 individuals currently in the process of performing their conscript service and 7 who had previously completed their service. The interviewees who were at the time of the interviews completing their military service were found through co-operation with 2 Finnish brigades. The research was introduced to conscripts during lessons that were part of their conscript service, and volunteers were invited to participate in the research. The interviews were then conducted at army facilities, primarily in empty classrooms or dormitory rooms, during the daily scheduled service time. The interviewees who had previously already conducted their service in Finland were found through emailing lists, NGOs, contact persons, language classes and by using the snowballing method.

We conducted interviews with individuals who self-identified as having a “migrant background”. Official Finnish statistics define individuals as having a foreign background if either one or both of their parents were born abroad (Statistics Finland, 2023b). However, in this study, we allowed the interviewees themselves to define whether they considered themselves to have a “migrant background” or not. In practice, we interviewed individuals who had either personally relocated to Finland from abroad at some point in their lives (14 interviewees) or were born in Finland but had parents (or one parent) who had moved to Finland from abroad, growing up in a multicultural environment (10 interviewees). Of the interviewees, 15 held Finnish nationality and 9 possessed dual nationalities (both Finnish and another nationality). Some of the interviewees had not resided in Finland before entering conscript service and had migrated to Finland to complete their conscript service. Individuals who have dual nationality can, at the age of 22, lose their Finnish citizenship if it is considered that they do not have close enough ties to Finland. Ties to Finland are considered close enough if a person has performed conscript service in Finland (either military or civilian), which can motivate individuals to perform conscript service in Finland (Finnish Immigration service, 2022).

Interviews were conducted with individuals having a wide diversity of national and ethnic backgrounds (see Table 1). The interviewees were between 18 and 44 years old, with the majority of them being in their early twenties. The interviews were conducted in either English (4) or Finnish (20). The interviews lasted approximately 30–60 min, and they were conducted face-to-face, online (Zoom and Teams) or on the phone. During the interviews, the interviewees were asked about their background, their civilian life, future plans and their experiences of conscript service, for example, what they had liked and disliked during their service, what they had learned and experienced and whether they felt that they had been equally included.

Table 1 Information on interviewees
Full size table

The study was conducted following and adhering to the administrative and ethical instruction of the Finnish Defence Forces (Finnish Defence Forces, 2017). The informants were carefully informed about the research, data collection and the use of the data. Prior to commencing the interviews, the participants were provided with a thorough explanation of the research and its implications for their involvement. It was emphasised again at this stage that participation was entirely voluntary, and the interviewees were free to withdraw from the study at any point. Given that some interviews took place in a military environment, particular attention was given to ensuring that the participants understood that their participation would not impact their service. The interviewees were given the opportunity to ask questions, and they were asked to sign a consent form. Additionally, the interviewees were also asked consent for recording and making notes.

After completing the interviews, the recorded data was transcribed and coded by using qualitative analysis software. The approach employed for the first round of analysis was data-driven thematic analysis, following the methodology outlined by Creswell (2007). After a first round of coding, the codes derived from the data were organised into overarching themes. The forming of themes was guided by previous studies on labour market integration barriers. The quotations used in the analysis are verbatim and translated from Finnish to English.

Analysis—Can Conducting Conscript Service Influence Labour Market Integration?

In this section, we analyse the various aspects cited by the interviewees about their experience in military conscript service, focusing on how these aspects may potentially influence their labour market position. The themes explored here are guided by the barriers identified in previous research.

Improving Language Skills

The importance of language proficiency for employment is widely acknowledged within the research field, as well as by migrants themselves (Steel & Jyrkinen, 2017). During the interviews, the significance of language skills emerged as a central topic, discussed both in terms of coping during service and as the opportunity to improve language skills during conscript service.

Military conscript service in Finland is conducted primarily in the Finnish language, the official language, and in one brigade, in the second official language, Swedish. This means, for instance, that training sessions, courses and instruction are delivered in these two official languages. However, it is not a mandatory requirement for individual conscripts to speak Finnish in order to participate in conscript service. In other words, it is possible to enter conscript service without speaking a word of Finnish or Swedish, although the training is provided in these languages. Of the individuals that we interviewed, most were proficient in Finnish, while some did not speak Finnish at all. Those individuals in service who did not speak Finnish had usually acquired Finnish citizenship through their parents. It was generally observed that having limited or no Finnish language skills made conscript service more challenging for participants, but not impossible. Those interviewees who had limited language proficiency emphasised their reliance on their peers during conscript service to navigate the language barrier.

In terms of integration outcomes, several interviewees reported that their Finnish language skills improved during their conscript service, particularly their skills in what they considered “formal” Finnish. Notably, those interviewees who already possessed some language skills appeared to benefit the most from service in terms of language learning. The interviewees described that the demands of conscript service forced them to use Finnish more frequently than before, resulting in improvements in their Finnish proficiency. Moreover, several interviewees described that, during their conscript service, they had more interactions with Finnish-speaking individuals than before in their civilian lives. This increased exposure provided them with opportunities to utilise and practice their Finnish language skills. For some, this seemed to be a significant shift from their previous communication, where they mainly communicated in English or some other language with their friends. These interviewees highlighted that conversing in Finnish with native Finns during conscript service significantly elevated their language skills.

In terms of language skill improvement, individuals who already spoke Finnish at a native level, or those with very limited knowledge of the Finnish language, exhibited the least improvement in their Finnish proficiency. The latter group, lacking adequate Finnish language skills to communicate in Finnish during their conscript service, predominantly used English throughout their time in service. One interviewee, for instance, described that he only picked up a few curse words in Finnish. Because he did not speak Finnish, his dorm mates also did not try to speak Finnish with him and communicated solely in English with him. Similarly, those interviewees who already possessed a high level of fluency in Finnish upon beginning conscript service found only a minimal improvement in their Finnish language skills. One interviewee, for example, noted: “I don’t think my Finnish language skills will improve anymore, since I have already lived here for 17 years” (Interview 3). However, even among those who were already native level speakers of Finnish, some noted that they learned certain military-specific language and slang during service. Even so, they pondered that there was no benefit to work-related matters from learning that.

The language learning described by the interviewees took place in action and through active participation in training and communication with peers. It is worth noting that the conscript service itself did not facilitate language courses or tools for language learning. For most interviewees, language learning occurred as a by-product. They did not actively pursue enhancing their language skills, but instead, it was mostly described as something that happened through engaging in various activities and being forced, due to circumstances, to interact with other Finnish speakers.

Building Social Networks and Relations

The interviewees described making numerous new friends during their conscript service. Serving together fostered a strong bond of camaraderie among individuals, creating group cohesiveness and a sense of unity. Friends played a crucial role in providing support and assisting with coping during periods of stress and difficulties through their conscript service. According to most of the interviewees, having a migrant background did not influence making friends during service.

What is noteworthy in relation to integration is that the majority of interviewees described having primarily interacted with native Finns during their conscript service. This is due to the higher representation of native Finns compared to individuals with a migrant background conducting their service, as is representative of wider society (according to a survey by Leinonen et al. (2017), 94% of male conscripts have a native Finnish background). This means that migrants in conscript service form so-called “bridging social networks”, which research has found to play a significant role in migrants’ integration (Alho, 2020; Zlobina et al., 2006). For instance, one interviewee, who had moved to Finland 6 years ago, noted that during his service, “I have been in contact with more Finns than previously during my whole life” (Interview 8). Despite previous research indicating difficulties in forming friendships with the majority population (Koskela, 2014; Li & Pitkänen, 2018; Tiilikainen, 2000), the context of conscript service does seem to provide an avenue for such connections.

Several interviewees themselves described that acquiring new social networks and social skills could potentially have a positive impact on their future labour market prospects. As one interviewee, for example, noted: “You meet new people here and your social kills also improve. It can help a lot when applying for work and in working life in general” (Interview 16). Although the implications of these friendships on future labour market outcomes remain uncertain, the findings demonstrate that military service contributes to network building and the development of bridging social capital. Apart from bridging capital, the time in conscript service also fosters bonding capital, which is formed of social connections within a group or community (Lancee, 2010). The interviewees mentioned that they had also befriended other conscripts who had migrant backgrounds.

Most interviewees had the idea that they will keep in contact with some of their new comrades after service, but that the contact will likely decrease. For those interviewees who have already completed service, especially social media has had a central role in maintaining contact. One interviewee, who had completed his conscript service circa 5 years ago, for example, noted: “Although we did not become friends for life, we still have each other’s social medias, and sometimes we send each other messages. And we still have our group chat—-” (Interview 2). Potentially, also information, for example, about potential job opportunities could be transmitted through such existing and open communication channels, although this was not specified by the interviewees.

Obtaining Skills and Qualifications

Several interviewees emphasised that the courses and certificates they had completed during their conscript service could help them find work after service. In some cases, this had already proven beneficial, particularly for those interviewees who had obtained nationally recognised certificates that were directly applicable in the labour market. In line with previous findings (see Kleykamp, 2009; Eronen et al., 2014), our analysis indicates that especially skills which are transferable and applicable to civilian life have the most significant impact on increasing employment among migrants.

During the Finnish conscript service, there are opportunities to acquire driver’s licences that are recognised in civilian life. Notably, some interviewees considered obtaining a C-driver’s licence (required for driving a lorry) or a CE-licence (required for driving an articulated vehicle) free of charge during service as highly advantageous for their future career prospects. One interviewee, who had studied to become an electrician before entering conscript service, highlighted the value of acquiring a C-driver’s licence as follows: “I just got my C-driver’s licence, and this gives me great benefits for civilian life, because that card is also valid in civilian life. Basically, I could go work in the transportation sector. That is a really big advantage” (Interview 3). It is important to note that not all conscripts have the opportunity to obtain a driver’s licence during conscript service. Only those who are selected for specific training programmes can profit from this benefit. Consequently, this benefit only pertains to a limited number of conscripts.

In addition to obtaining a driver’s licence, other qualifications were also brought up as beneficial for improving employment prospects. For instance, one interviewee who completed his service some years ago noted the following: “I have been to that Search and Security course during my time in the army. Due to this, I got a job at the airport as a security inspector” (Interview 2). This quotation illustrates that there can be direct advantages in the labour market inclusion resulting from conscript service. However, there is no indication that these trainings specifically benefit individuals with a migrant background compared to native citizens. The benefits seem to arise from the acquisition of relevant qualifications and skills that are valuable in the labour market, regardless of an individual’s background.

Besides the direct vocational qualifications described above, the interviewees also described several other skills or competences they had acquired, which they believed to enhance their success in future working life. These skills included a respect for others, authority, order and rules; self-discipline; the ability to cope with stressful situations; perseverance; time management; and social skills, such as collaboration and teamwork together with diverse individuals. All these skills add to the human capital that individuals have, and as such, they can be beneficial in the labour market and during occupational or academic studies. Additionally, several interviewees emphasised that leadership training, which some conscripts undergo, can be very useful and valuable when setting up one’s own business or taking leadership roles at work.

Several interviewees emphasised that, during their conscript service, they had become accustomed to early wakeups and coping with limited sleep. For some, waking up early was associated with maturation and transition into adulthood, which are features that are frequently associated with military service (Ahlbäck, 2014; Kosonen, 2019; Kouri, 2021). Due to conscript service being so strongly associated with maturation in Finland, it could be postulated that those who have completed their conscript service may be perceived as more mature by potential employers.

While the majority of interviewees did find that they had learned something valuable during their conscript service, there were also some who expressed that they had not learned any useful skills, particularly concerning their civilian or working lives. For example, one interviewee who had lived his entire life in Finland said, “We learn nothing here that is useful in normal life” (Interview 6). Furthermore, the same interviewee described that, during his service, his perspective on his tasks became short-sighted, and it made him focus only on the task at hand and nothing more. Thus, whether the skills acquired during conscript service were seen as beneficial for future employment varied between individuals. This likely depends on how well the specific skills acquired during service match the individual’s career goals in civilian life.

Acquiring Information About Finland and the Finnish Labour Market

Among the interviewees, there was a general consensus that their overall knowledge about Finland had expanded during their conscript service, with many of them noting a significant increase in their social awareness due to spending more time with Finnish peers. The time in service thus acted as a forum for learning about the culture (Leal, 2003). One interviewee, who had entered conscript service from abroad but had previously lived in Finland, noted, “I have learned about what a Finnish environment is like. I had actually never before spoken with Finnish people who are the same age as I am.—- Now I know what kind of life they are leading and what kind of habits they have in their life.” (Interview 4). This extract shows that conscript service may offer unique opportunities to familiarise oneself with the Finnish culture, especially for conscripts who have not lived in Finland before their service.

Several interviewees attributed their enhanced understanding and sense of belonging in Finnish society to interacting with diverse individual conscripts from all around the country. This exposure enabled them to learn about different living conditions and traditions. For instance, one interviewee, who had lived his entire life in Finland, noted that, “When I came here, I realised that people come from such different places and bring different kinds of things, different habits. I started to realise that these kinds of people also exist, and they do things differently than we in the capital area” (Interview 16). Thus, conscript service may also increase the knowledge of conscripts who have always lived in Finland, both native Finns and Finns with a migrant background.

None of the interviewees, however, described that they had acquired any particular information about the Finnish labour market during their conscript service. Nevertheless, several interviewees noted that they had discussed their future plans for life after conscript service with their peers during their service. It is conceivable that such discussions might have increased their tacit knowledge, for example, regarding available education or career paths. Other interviewees, on the other hand, noted that they had already possessed substantial knowledge before their conscript service, having learned a lot at school, and thus indicating that their time in conscript service had only a limited influence on their understanding of Finnish society.

Tackling Discrimination? Elevating Status

Some of the interviewees perceived that conducting military service can possibly increase their opportunities of finding employment through elevating their status in the eyes of potential employers (see also Kleykamp, 2007). For instance, one interviewee noted, “-—if someone sees that you’ve been in the military, you’re disciplined, you are clean, you respect others, you are a hard-working guy. So, for sure it definitely influences whether you are more likely to get picked for a job” (Interview 22). As such, military service might act as a screening device (see, e.g. DeTray, 1982; Teachman & Tedrow, 2007) that employers use to select employees. It signals that a person has met the minimum attributes required by the military (see Kleykamp, 2009). Although these requirements may not be as difficult to meet in a conscript military than in a professional one, they still exist, possibly due to the value attached to military service in Finland (Kosonen, 2019). Although conducting military service is not supposed to influence hiring decisions in Finland, according to the law, several interviewees found that this might still be the case in practice. One interviewee, for example, noted, “They are not allowed to ask whether you have been to service, but I still think that if I told some employer that I have been to service, they will regard it more positively than negatively.” (Interview 10).

Some of the interviewees found that the reasons why having conducted military service might positively influence employers is because it is considered to signal integration and adaption of Finnish norms and practices. Having conducted military service in Finland can thus potentially build trust in the eyes of employers (see Alho, 2020 for similar findings in relation to work experience). One interviewee, for example, noted, “My friends have told me that if you complete your military service, you should put it on your CV and that it will make it easier to find work.—- This is because some Finns believe that if you have been to the army, you have learned their culture. I am not sure why this is, but there will be more opportunities for you to find work, compared to those who have not been to service” (Interview 8). Military service can thus serve as a substitute for civilian labour market experience.

Because there is discrimination in the labour market, having conducted military service in Finland can offer migrants the possibility to present themselves in a position in which they might be less discriminated against. As such, having completed military service and putting this on one’s CV can potentially have a more significant role for those with a migrant background, particularly compared to the majority population. This is because conducting military service is considered an important part of constructing Finnish identity (Hoikkala, 2009, 12) and that of active citizenship (Riikonen et al., 2019).

Also, those interviewees who were not planning to stay in Finland after conscript service found conscript service as something that might positively influence their employment opportunities in the future. Several interviewees mentioned that having experience from the Finnish military would also be considered something valuable abroad.

Discussion and Conclusions

This research has analysed the role that conscript service can have for those with a migrant background in labour market integration, particularly from a perspective of how it can help in overcoming existing barriers to the labour market in Finland. Military service, particularly mandatory conscript service, is a field of society which has previously been overlooked in integration studies. However, it is an important field to look at, especially in contexts such as Finland, where taking part in conscript service is a compulsory duty for male citizens and, therefore, constitutes an important chapter in the lives of a significant number of young individuals (cf. Kosonen, 2019). The research adds to the understanding of what can facilitate migrant labour market integration and adds to the literature of ethnic minorities in militaries.

In the analysis, several labour market integration barriers identified by previous studies, i.e. a lack of language skills, networks and information, discrimination and the difficulty of getting previous skills and qualifications recognised (e.g. Kyhä, 2006; Kyhä, 2011; Larja et al., 2012; Paakkinen, 2016; Liebkind et al., 2016; Karayilan et al., 2017; OECD, 2018; Bontenbal & Lillie, 2019; Martelin et al., 2020; Ahmad, 2020a; Ndomo et al., 2022) were considered in the context of conscript service. The research findings indicate that conscript service could help both first-generation and second-generation migrants to overcome some of these barriers to labour market inclusion.

To answer our research question, we find that conducting conscript service is perceived to have some direct beneficial outcomes for labour market integration and some that are less direct. Direct labour market outcomes are related particularly to qualifications that are acquired during service, which can be directly used in the civilian labour market, such as the acquisition of different types of driver’s licences. Indirect advantages that can help close the gap to labour market inclusion include improved language skills and knowledge about Finnish society and norms. The direct outcomes particularly are equally beneficial to first- and second-generation migrants whereas the indirect outcomes can be more significant for first-generation migrants. The research asserts that conducting military conscript service can lead to acculturation, such as learning the language and becoming familiar with the host society’s culture and social norms. It thus increases location-specific human capital and, therefore, it can potentially, in line with the traditional hypothesis of economic integration, improve labour market integration outcomes. In terms of policy recommendations, particularly, policies that enhance the language learning of those conscripts who have very weak language skills should be considered in the military, since this could improve both inclusion during service and integration after service. Also, the findings highlight the importance that policies, which enhance the transferability of skills learned in service to civilian life, can have particularly to the labour market integration of migrants. Establishing such policies is also relevant to consider in other contexts in society as well as other countries.

Conducting military service enables those with a migrant background to build social networks, also with native citizens. Many of both first- and second-generation migrants that we interviewed had mainly socialised with other migrants before service, and thus, military service significantly increased their contact with individuals with a native Finnish background. What the role of these bridging social networks will be in the future in terms of labour market outcomes is out of the scope of this study, but the findings do reveal that service contributes to network building and the forging of bridging social capital. Findings from previous studies regarding the military as a platform for establishing bridging social capital have been mixed and vary in different contexts: The findings from this study do not align with previous findings from Sion (2016), in a Dutch military context, according to which the military’s power as a socialising agent is limited and tends to reinforce existing gaps between the majority and minority groups. The findings of our study are more in line with Leal (2003), from a US military context, according to which the army can facilitate social integration, illustrated by Hispanic veterans having a more diverse group of friends compared to their nonveteran Hispanic counterparts.

Although some of the benefits of military conscript service can also aid those with a native background, the research finds that there are some advantages that can be of particular benefit for individuals with a migrant background. The interviewees perceived that participation in service can enhance their status in the eyes of future employers, as it demonstrates their maturation, commitment to Finland and level of integration. This finding supports previous findings according to which especially work experience that is acquired in Finland, and references from “Finnish people” are found to be important for further employment (Alho, 2020; Kostiainen & Laakso, 2014). This has to do with the fact that employers have preconceptions about skills that are acquired abroad (Kyhä, 2011).

In regard to the labour market integration advantages, it should be noted that, because conscript service is only compulsory for men, the benefits of it are gendered. In general, the participation of women in service, at roughly 3–5% of each age cohort, is significantly less than that of men. As a consequence, conscript service mainly improves the labour market outcome of men, which can then contribute to increased inequality. This is problematic because female migrants’ labour market position is worse to begin with than that of male migrants (Busk & Jauhiainen, 2022; Busk et al., 2016; Eronen et al., 2014; OECD, 2018). Furthermore, it seems that the labour market capital accumulated during service steers male migrants towards male-dominant professions, such as transportation and security. As such, it can enhance existing gender segregation in the labour market (Busk & Jauhiainen, 2022; Heikkilä, 2017).

Participating in service also only benefits the labour market integration of young people, since migrants who get their citizenship after turning 30 can no longer participate in conscript service and thus cannot profit from the potential benefits of labour market inclusion. Moreover, those who migrate to Finland when they are younger are found to be more likely employed than those who migrate when they are older (Busk et al., 2016). In addition, it is important to note that in the context of mandatory conscript service, those who enter service are not a representation of all men in society. Individuals participating in conscript service are positively selected based on their mental and physical health. For these reasons, conscript service can thus especially benefit those who are already in a somewhat better position regarding their labour market integration to begin with.

It should be noted that there are also some shortcomings to this research. First, this research looks at how conducting service could potentially influence labour market outcomes by analysing migrant conscripts’ interviews and focusing on their perceptions. As such, it cannot draw conclusions on whether conducting conscript service actually improves the labour market inclusion of these individuals. Further research, especially longitudinal research, on employment outcomes is needed to confirm these results. Second, our data consists of individuals from various backgrounds who have stayed in Finland for very varying sets of time. It is possible that the benefits to labour market inclusion of conscript service can vary between different backgrounds. Our data, however, do not enable us to consider this or compare different background factors, and it is thus something that should be considered in future research. Third, our research looks at military conscript service and can thus not offer insight into how civilian service might influence employment prospects. It also does not offer the possibility to make comparisons between whether conducting military or civilian service would potentially be more useful in terms of labour marker inclusion for those with a migrant background.

In conclusion, the research offers a new perspective to the integration of those with a migrant background, since it provides information about a context, mandatory conscript service, which has previously not been focused on in integration studies. We find that conscripts with a migrant background perceive participation in conscript service as providing them with experiences, skills, networks and status benefits that could improve their labour market position by tackling some of the existing barriers to labour market integration. Service is considered to provide participants with valuable experiences that can facilitate entry into the civilian workforce.