Abstract
Memory and learning are interdependent processes that involve encoding, storage, and retrieval. Especially memory retrieval is a fundamental cognitive ability to recall memory traces and update stored memory with new information. For effective memory retrieval and learning, the memory must be stabilized from short-term memory to long-term memory. Hence, it is necessary to understand the process of memory retention and retrieval that enhances the process of learning. Though previous cognitive neuroscience research has focused on memory acquisition and storage, the neurobiological mechanisms underlying memory retrieval and its role in learning are less understood. Therefore, this article offers the viewpoint that memory retrieval is essential for selecting, reactivating, stabilizing, and storing information in long-term memory. In arguing how memories are retrieved, consolidated, transmitted, and strengthened for the long term, the article will examine the psychological and neurobiological aspects of memory and learning with synaptic plasticity, long-term potentiation, genetic transcription, and theta oscillation in the brain.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.
References
Abraham, W. C., & Bear, M. F. (1996). Metaplasticity: the plasticity of synaptic plasticity. Trends in Neurosciences, 19(4), 126–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0166-2236(96)80018-x
Abraham, W. C., Jones, O. D., & Glanzman, D. L. (2019). Is plasticity of synapses the mechanism of long-term memory storage? NPJ Science of Learning, 4 (1), 9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-019-0048-y
Abrahamsson, T., Lalanne, T., Watt, A. J., & Sjöström, P. J. (2016). Long-term potentiation by theta-Burst stimulation using extracellular field potential recordings in acute hippocampal slices. Cold Spring Harbor Protocols, 2016(6), 564–572. https://doi.org/10.1101/pdb.prot091298
Adams, P., Llano, D., Brunel, N., Hawkins, J., & Ahmad, S. (2016). Why Neurons Have Thousands of Synapses, a Theory of Sequence Memory in Neocortex. Frontiers in Neural Circuits, 10, 23. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncir.2016.00023
Alberini, C. M. (2011). The role of reconsolidation and the dynamic process of long-term memory formation and storage. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 5(12). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00012
Alberini, C. M., & Ledoux, J. E. (2013). Memory reconsolidation. Current Biology, 23(17), R746–R750. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.06.046
Albouy, P., Martinez-Moreno, Z. E., Hoyer, R. S., Zatorre, R. J., & Baillet, S. (2022). Supramodality of neural entrainment: Rhythmic visual stimulation causally enhances auditory working memory performance. Science Advances, 8(8), eabj9782. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abj9782
Anderson, M. C., & Neely, J. H. (1996). Interference and inhibition in memory retrieval. Memory, 3(8), 237–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012102570-0/50010-0
Arai, A., & Lynch, G. (1992). Factors regulating the magnitude of long-term potentiation induced by theta pattern stimulation. Brain Research, 598(1–2), 173–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(92)90181-8
Baars, B. J., & Gage, N. M. (2010). Learning and memory. Cognition, Brain, and Consciousness, 9, 304–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-375070-9.00009-7
Barron, H. C. (2021). Neural inhibition for continual learning and memory. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 67, 85–94. Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2020.09.007
Bartsch, T., Döhring, J., Rohr, A., Jansen, O., & Deuschl, G. (2011). CA1 neurons in the human hippocampus are critical for autobiographical memory, mental time travel, and autonoetic consciousness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(42), 17562–17567. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1110266108
Bastiaansen, M. C., van der Linden, M., ter Keurs, M., Dijkstra, T., & Hagoort, P. (2005). Theta Responses Are Involved in Lexical-Semantic Retrieval during Language Processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17(3), 530–541. https://doi.org/10.1162/0898929053279469
Bell, M. C., Kawadri, N., Simone, P. M., & Wiseheart, M. (2014). Long-term memory, sleep, and the spacing effect. Memory, 22(3), 276–283. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2013.778294
Benito, E., & Barco, A. (2010). CREB’s control of intrinsic and synaptic plasticity: implications for CREB-dependent memory models. Trends in Neurosciences, 33(5), 230–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2010.02.001
Bito, H., & Takemoto-Kimura, S. (2003). Ca2+/CREB/CBP-dependent gene regulation: A shared mechanism critical in long-term synaptic plasticity and neuronal survival. Cell Calcium, 34(4–5), 425–430. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0143-4160(03)00140-4
Bland, B. H. (1986). The Physiology and Pharmacology of Hippocampal Formation Theta Rhythms*. In Progress in Neurobiology, 26(1), 1–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-0082(86)90019-5
Bliss, T. V. P., & Cooke, S. F. (2011). Long-term potentiation and long-term depression: a clinical perspective. Clinics, 66(S1), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1807-59322011001300002
Brem, A. Katharine., Ran, K., & Pascual-leone, A. (2013). Learning and memory. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 116, 693–737. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-53497-2.00055-3. Elsevier B.V.
Brown, R. E., Bligh, T. W. B., & Garden, J. F. (2021). The Hebb synapse before Hebb: Theories of synaptic function in learning and memory before Hebb (1949), with a discussion of the long-lost synaptic theory of William McDougall. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 15, 732195. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2021.732195
Capocchi, G., Zampolini, M., & Larson, J. (1992). Theta burst stimulation is optimal for induction of LTP at both apical and basal dendritic synapses on hippocampal CA1 neurons. Brain Research, 591(2), 332–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(92)91715-q
Chanales, A. J. H., Dudukovic, N. M., Richter, F. R., & Kuhl, B. A. (2019). Interference between overlapping memories is predicted by neural states during learning. Nature Communications, 10(1), 5363. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-13377-x
Choi, D. il, & Kaang, B.-K. (2022). Interrogating structural plasticity among synaptic engrams. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 75, 102552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2022.102552
Collingridge, G. L., Peineau, S., Howland, J. G., & Wang, Y. T. (2010). Long-term depression in the CNS. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11(7), 459–473. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2867
Davis, R. L., & Zhong, Y. (2017). The Biology of Forgetting—A Perspective. Neuron, 95(3), 490–503. Cell Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2017.05.039
Deisseroth, K., & Bito, H. (1996). Signaling from Synapse to Nucleus: Postsynaptic CREB Phosphorylation during Multiple Forms of Hippocampal Synaptic Plasticity. Neuron, 16, 89–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0896-6273(00)80026-4
Druckmann, S., Feng, L., Lee, B., Yook, C., Zhao, T., Magee, J. C., & Kim, J. (2014). Structured Synaptic Connectivity between Hippocampal Regions. Neuron, 81(3), 629–640. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.11.026
Düzel, E., Penny, W. D., & Burgess, N. (2010). Brain oscillations and memory. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 20(2), 143–149. Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2010.01.004
Ebbinghaus, H. (1855). Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology (1913th ed.). Columbia University.
Evans, R. B. (1990). William James, “The Principles of Psychology,” and experimental psychology. Source: The American Journal of Psychology 103(4). Winter. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1423317?seq=1&cid=pdf. Accessed 16 Sep 2021
Fusi, S. (2008). Neuroscience: A quiescent working memory. Science, 319(5869), 1495–1496. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1155914
Gandolfi, D., Cerri, S., Mapelli, J., Polimeni, M., Tritto, S., Fuzzati-Armentero, M. T., Bigiani, A., Blandini, F., Mapelli, L., & D’Angelo, E. (2017). Activation of the CREB/c-Fos pathway during long-term synaptic plasticity in the cerebellum granular layer. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 11, 184. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2017.00184
Gasbarri, A., & Pompili, A. (2013). Involvement of glutamate in learning and memory. Identification of Neural Markers Accompanying Memory, 4, 63–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-408139-0.00004-3
González-Espinosa, C., & Guzmán-Mejía, F. (2013). Basic elements of signal transduction pathways involved in chemical neurotransmission. In Identification of Neural Markers Accompanying Memory, 8, 121–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-408139-0.00008-0
Goto, A. (2022). Synaptic plasticity during systems memory consolidation. Neuroscience Research, 183, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neures.2022.05.008
Gyorgy, B. (2002). Theta Oscillations in the Hippocampus. Neuron, 33(3), 325–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0896-6293(02)00586-x
Han, D. H., Park, P., Choi, D. il, Bliss, T. V. P., & Kaang, B. K. (2021). The essence of the engram: Cellular or synaptic? Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology., 125, 122–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semcdb.2021.05.033
Hebb, D. (1949). The Organization of Behavior (1st ed.). Psychology Press.
Herszage, J., & Censor, N. (2017). Memory Reactivation Enables Long-Term Prevention of Interference. Current Biology, 27(10), 1529-1534.e2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.04.025
Jackman, S. L., & Regehr, W. G. (2017). The mechanisms and functions of synaptic facilitation. Neuron, 94(3), 447–464. Cell Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2017.02.047
Jacobs, J., Hwang, G., Curran, T., & Kahana, M. J. (2006). EEG oscillations and recognition memory: Theta correlates of memory retrieval and decision making. NeuroImage, 32(2), 978–987. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.02.018
Kaldun, J. C., & Sprecher, S. G. (2019). Initiated by CREB: Resolving gene regulatory programs in learning and memory: Switch in cofactors and transcription regulators between memory consolidation and maintenance Network. BioEssays, 41(8), 1900045. https://doi.org/10.1002/bies.201900045
Kaltschmidt, B., & Kaltschmidt, C. (2015). NF-KappaB in long-term memory and structural plasticity in the adult mammalian brain. In Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience, 8(November), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2015.00069
Kaltschmidt, B., Ndiaye, D., Korte, M., Pothion, S., Arbibe, L., Prüllage, M., Pfeiffer, J., Lindecke, A., Staiger, V., Israël, A., Kaltschmidt, C., & Mémet, S. (2006). NF-κB Regulates Spatial Memory Formation and Synaptic Plasticity through Protein Kinase A/CREB Signaling. Molecular and Cellular Biology, 26(8), 2936–2946. https://doi.org/10.1128/mcb.26.8.2936-2946.2006
Kaltschmidt, B., Widera, D., & Kaltschmidt, C. (2005). Signaling via NF-κB in the nervous system. Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta - Molecular Cell Research, 1745(3), 287–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbamcr.2005.05.009
Katkov, M., Romani, S., & Tsodyks, M. (2017). Memory Retrieval from First Principles. Neuron, 94(5), 1027–1032. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2017.03.048
Kemp, A., & Manahan-Vaughan, D. (2004). Hippocampal long-term depression and long-term potentiation encode different aspects of novelty acquisition. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 101(21), 8192–8197. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0402650101.
Kerrén, C., Bramão, I., Hellerstedt, R., & Johansson, M. (2021). Strategic retrieval prevents memory interference: The temporal dynamics of retrieval orientation. Neuropsychologia, 154, 107776. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2021.107776
Kida, S. (2012). A Functional Role for CREB as a Positive Regulator of Memory Formation and LTP. Experimental Neurobiology, 21(4), 136–140. https://doi.org/10.5607/en.2012.21.4.136
Kikuchi, M., Shitamichi, K., Yoshimura, Y., Ueno, S., Remijn, G. B., Hirosawa, T., Munesue, T., Tsubokawa, T., Haruta, Y., Oi, M., Higashida, H., & Minabe, Y. (2011). Lateralized theta wave connectivity and language performance in 2-to 5-year-old children. Journal of Neuroscience, 31(42), 14984–14988. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2785-11.2011
Klimesch, W., Doppelmayr, M., Yonelinas, A., Kroll, N. E. A., Lazzara, M., Rohm, D., & Gruber, W. (2001). Theta synchronization during episodic retrieval: neural correlates of conscious awareness. Cognitive Brain Research, 12(1), 33–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0926-6410(01)00024-6
Kneussel, M., & Hausrat, T. J. (2016). Postsynaptic Neurotransmitter Receptor Reserve Pools for Synaptic Potentiation. Trends in Neurosciences, 39(3), 170–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2016.01.002
Knierim, J. J. (2014). Information processing in neural networks. From Molecules to Networks: An Introduction to Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience, 19, 563–589. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-397179-1.00019-1
Kornmeier, J., Spitzer, M., & Sosic-Vasic, Z. (2014). Very similar spacing-effect patterns in very different learning/practice domains. PLoS ONE, 9(3), e90656. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0090656
Kumar, A. (2015). NMDA receptor function during senescence: Implication on cognitive performance. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 9, 473. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00473
Langille, J. J., & Brown, R. E. (2018). The synaptic theory of memory: A historical survey and reconciliation of recent opposition. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 12, 52. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2018.00052
Larson, J., & Munkácsy, E. (2015). Theta-burst LTP. In. Brain Research, 1621, 38–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2014.10.034
Lee, E., Lee, S., Shin, J. J., Choi, W., Chung, C., Lee, S., Kim, J., Ha, S., Kim, R., Yoo, T., Yoo, Y. E., Kim, J., Noh, Y. W., Rhim, I., Lee, S. Y., Kim, W., Lee, T., Shin, H., Cho, I. J., … Kim, E. (2021). Excitatory synapses and gap junctions cooperate to improve Pv neuronal burst firing and cortical social cognition in Shank2-mutant mice. Nature Communications, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-25356-2
Lockhart, R. S. (2001). Memory retrieval. International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, 68(27), 9613–9618. https://doi.org/10.1016/b0-08-043076-7/01523-0
Lonze, B. E., & Ginty, D. D. (2002). Function and regulation of CREB family transcription factors in the nervous system. In Neuron, 35(4), 605–623. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0896-6273(02)00828-0
Martinez, J. L., & Derrick, B. E. (1996). Long-Term Potentiation And Learning. Annual Review of Psychology, 47, 173–203. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.47.1.173
McCalley, D. M., Lench, D. H., Doolittle, J. D., Imperatore, J. P., Hoffman, M., & Hanlon, C. A. (2021). Determining the optimal pulse number for theta burst induced change in cortical excitability. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 8726. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-87916-2
Miller, R. R. (2021). Failures of memory and the fate of forgotten memories. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 181, 107426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2021.107426
Mittal, A. M., Singh, S. S., & Gupta, N. (2018). Sensory Coding: Neurons That Wire Together Fire Longer. Current Biology, 28(10), R608–R610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2018.04.003
Mukherjee, S., & Manahan-Vaughan, D. (2013). Role of metabotropic glutamate receptors in persistent forms of hippocampal plasticity and learning. Neuropharmacology, 66, 65–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.06.005
Murre, J. M. J., & Dros, J. (2015). Replication and analysis of Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve. PLoS ONE, 10(7), e0120644. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0120644
Nelson, T. O. (1985). Ebbinghaus’s contribution to the measurement of retention: Savings during relearning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11(3), 472–9. https://doi.org/10.1037//0278-7393.11.3.472
Ortega-Martínez, S. (2015). A new perspective on the role of the CREB family of transcription factors in memory consolidation via adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience, 8, 46. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2015.00046
Packard, M. G., & Knowlton, B. J. (2002). Learning and Memory Functions of the Basal Ganglia. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 25(1), 563–593. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.25.112701.142937
Raman, D. V., Rotondo, A. P., & O’Leary, T. (2019). Fundamental bounds on learning performance in neural circuits. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116(21), 10537–10546. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1813416116
Riedel, G., Platt, B., & Micheau, J. (2003). Glutamate receptor function in learning and memory. Behavioral Brain Research, 140(1–2), 4714. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0166-4328(02)00272-3
Schmitz, T. W., Correia, M. M., Ferreira, C. S., Prescot, A. P., & Anderson, M. C. (2017). Hippocampal GABA enables inhibitory control over unwanted thoughts. Nature Communications, 8(1), 1311. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-017-00956-z
Silva, M., Tran, V., & Marty, A. (2021). Calcium-dependent docking of synaptic vesicles. Trends in Neurosciences, 44(7), 579–592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2021.04.003
Spurny, B., Seiger, R., Moser, P., Vanicek, T., Reed, M. B., Heckova, E., Michenthaler, P., Basaran, A., Gryglewski, G., Klöbl, M., Trattnig, S., Kasper, S., Bogner, W., & Lanzenberger, R. (2020). Hippocampal GABA levels correlate with retrieval performance in an associative learning paradigm. NeuroImage, 204, 116244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116244
Steinvorth, S., Corkin, S., & Halgren, E. (2006). Ecphory of autobiographical memories: An fMRI study of recent and remote memory retrieval. NeuroImage, 30(1), 285–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.09.025
Stent, G. S. (1973). A Physiological Mechanism for Hebb’s Postulate of Learning. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 70(4), 997–1001. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.70.4.997
Südhof, T. C. (2012). Calcium control of neurotransmitter release. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology, 4(1), a011353. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a011353
Sumi, T., & Harada, K. (2020). Mechanism underlying hippocampal long-term potentiation and depression based on competition between endocytosis and exocytosis of AMPA receptors. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 14711. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-71528-3
Suzuki, A., Fukushima, H., Mukawa, T., Toyoda, H., Wu, L. J., Zhao, M. G., Xu, H., Shang, Y., Endoh, K., Iwamoto, T., Mamiya, N., Okano, E., Hasegawa, S., Mercaldo, V., Zhang, Y., Maeda, R., Ohta, M., Josselyn, S. A., Zhuo, M., & Kida, S. (2011). Upregulation of CREB-mediated transcription enhances both short- and long-term memory. Journal of Neuroscience, 31(24), 8786–8802. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3257-10.2011
Sweatt, J. D. (2010). Long-Term Potentiation—A candidate cellular mechanism for information storage in the central nervous system. In Mechanisms of Memory, 7, 150–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-374951-2.00007-x
Ter Wal, M., Linde-Domingo, J., Lifanov, J., Roux, F., Kolibius, L. D., Gollwitzer, S., Lang, J., Hamer, H., Rollings, D., Sawlani, V., Chelvarajah, R., Staresina, B., Hanslmayr, S., & Wimber, M. (2021). Theta rhythmicity governs human behavior and hippocampal signals during memory-dependent tasks. Nature Communications, 12(1), 7048. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27323-3
Tian, W., & Chen, S. (2021). Neurotransmitters, cell types, and circuit mechanisms of motor skill learning and clinical applications. Frontiers in Neurology 12, 616820. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2021.616820
Tonegawa, S., Morrissey, M. D., & Kitamura, T. (2018). The role of engram cells in the systems consolidation of memory. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 19(8), 485–498. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41583-018-0031-2
Tonegawa, S., Pignatelli, M., Roy, D. S., & Ryan, T. J. (2015). Memory engram storage and retrieval. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 35, 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2015.07.009
Traynelis, S. F., Wollmuth, L. P., McBain, C. J., Menniti, F. S., Vance, K. M., Ogden, K. K., Hansen, K. B., Yuan, H., Myers, S. J., & Dingledine, R. (2010). Glutamate receptor ion channels: Structure, regulation, and function. Pharmacological Reviews, 62(3), 405–496. https://doi.org/10.1124/pr.109.002451
Tse, N. Y., Goldsworthy, M. R., Ridding, M. C., Coxon, J. P., Fitzgerald, P. B., Fornito, A., & Rogasch, N. C. (2018). The effect of stimulation interval on plasticity following repeated blocks of intermittent theta burst stimulation. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 8526. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-26791-w
Tulving, E., le Voi, M. E., Routh, D. A., & Loftus, E. (1983). Ecphoric Processes in Episodic Memory [and Discussion]. Biological Sciences, 302(1110), 361–371. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2395999
Unsworth, N., Brewer, G. A., & Spillers, G. J. (2013). Focusing the search: Proactive and retroactive interference and the dynamics of free recall. Joumal of Experimental Psychology: Leaming. Memory, and Cognition, 39(6), 1742–1756. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0O33743
Wang, H., Xu, J., Lazarovici, P., Quirion, R., & Zheng, W. (2018). cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB): A possible signaling molecule link in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. In Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience, 11, 255. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00255
Wang, J. H., Wu, C., Lian, Y. N., Liu, L., & Li, X. Y. (2021). Targeting long-term depression of excitatory synaptic transmission for the treatment of neuropathic pain. John Wiley and Sons Inc. https://doi.org/10.1111/febs.16200
Wong, J. L. D., Lynch, G., & Larson, J. (1986). Patterned stimulation at the theta frequency is optimal for the induction of hippocampal long-term potentiation. Brain Research, 368(2), 347–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(86)90579-2
Woodward, A. E., Bjork, R. A., & Jongeward, R. H. (1973). Recall and Recognition as a Function of Primary Rehearsal. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 12(6), 608–617. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-5371(73)80040-4
Yang, Y., Lu, J., & Zuo, Y. (2018). Changes of Synaptic Structures Associated with Learning, Memory and Diseases. Brain Science Advances, 4(2), 99–117. https://doi.org/10.26599/bsa.2018.2018.9050012
Zacharopoulos, G., Sella, F., Kadosh, K. C., Hartwright, C., Emir, U., & Kadosh, R. C. (2021). Predicting learning and achievement using GABA and glutamate concentrations in human development. PLoS Biology, 19(7), e3001325. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001325
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
Both authors have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Informed Consent
This article has no study.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Savarimuthu, A., Ponniah, R.J. Receive, Retain and Retrieve: Psychological and Neurobiological Perspectives on Memory Retrieval. Integr. psych. behav. 58, 303–318 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-023-09752-5
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-023-09752-5