Abstract
Three main methodological practices have been employed in psychotherapy science: the empirical-quantitative, empirical-qualitative, and theoretical one. Some scholars have argued for a monopoly of the empirical-quantitative methodological practice, sustained by scientific monism. This systematic review aims at exploring the contribution of each methodological practice to the field. Fifteen journals were searched from 2003 to 2013. A total of 9796 publications and 9915 studies met inclusion criteria and were coded for the methodological practice employed. Empirical-quantitative studies were the most published overall, over time, and in most of the journals considered. This overwhelming prevalence increased when considering the citation rates of the publications. We argue that these results are indicative of a quantitative monopoly, which in turn is due to a lack of critical thinking sustaining scientific monism. We call for disciplinary critical thinking and the consequent scientific pluralism valuing the plurality, diversity, and multiplicity of all the existing methodological practices.
Similar content being viewed by others
Change history
05 August 2019
We would like to note the following corrections to the original version of Zhang, Sun, Lin and Ren.
Notes
It should be noted that, usually, a publication comprising more than one study can be the case for empirical papers – more often for quantitative than for qualitative ones – but not for theoretical papers.
It should be noted that Alan Kazdin, authoritative methodologist and representative of the empirical-quantitative approach, has stated that “. . . after decades of psychotherapy research and thousands of studies, there is no evidence-based explanation of how or why even the most well-studied interventions produce change” (Kazdin 2009, p. 426).
References
Addis, M. E., & Waltz, J. (2006). Implicit and untested assumptions about the role of psychotherapy treatment manuals in evidence-based mental mealth practice. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 9(4), 421–424. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.9.4.421.
Andreasen, N. C., Carpenter, W. T., Kane, J. M., Lasser, R. A., Marder, S. R., & Weinberger, D. R. (2005). Remission in schizophrenia: Propsed criteria and Raionale for consensus. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(3), 441–449. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.3.441.
APA Presidential Task Force on Evidence-Based Practice. (2006). Evidence-based practice in psychology. American Psychologist, 61(4), 271–285. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.4.271.
Aria, M., & Cuccurullo, C. (2017). bibliometrix : An R-tool for comprehensive science mapping analysis. Journal of Informetrics, 11(4), 959–975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joi.2017.08.007.
Bakan, D. (1966). Behaviorism and American urbanization. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 2(1), 5–28. https://doi.org/10.1002/1520-6696(196601)2:1<5::AID-JHBS2300020103>3.0.CO;2-8.
Barker, C., Pistrang, N., & Elliott, R. (2002). Research methods in clinical psychology: An introduction for students and practitioners. Chichester: Wiley.
Barlow, D. H., Allen, L. B., & Choate, M. L. (2004). Toward a unified treatment for emotional disorders. Behavior Therapy, 35(2), 205–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(04)80036-4.
Bassett, A. S., Scherer, S. W., & Brzustowicz, L. M. (2010). Copy number variations in schizophrenia: Critical review and new perspectives on concepts of genetics and disease. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 167(8), 899–914. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09071016.
Beidas, R., & Kendall, P. (2010). Training therapists in evidence-based practice: A critical review of studies from a systems-contextual perspective. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 17(1), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2850.2009.01187.x.
Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., et al. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 230–241. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy/bph077.
Braakmann, D. (2015). Historical paths in psychotherapy research. In O. C. G. Gelo, A. Pritz, & B. Rieken (Eds.), Psychotherapy research: Foundations, process, and outcome (pp. 39–65). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-1382-0_3.
Caro Gabalda, I., & Stiles, W. B. (2013). Irregular assimilation progress: Reasons for setbacks in the context of linguistic therapy of evaluation. Psychotherapy Research, 23(1), 35–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2012.721938.
Caspi, A., Hariri, A. R., Holmes, A., & Rudolf Uher, T. E. M. (2010). Genetic sensitivity to the environment: The case of the serotonin transporter gene and its implications for studying complex diseases and traits. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167(5), 509–527. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09101452.
Chambers, R. A., Taylor, J. R., & Potenza, M. N. (2003). Developmental neurocircuitry of motivation in adolescence: A critical period of addiction vulnerability. American Journal of Psychiartry, 160, 1041–1052. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.6.1041.
Charney, D. S. (2004). Psychobiological mechanism of resilience and vulnerability: Implications for successful adaptation to extreme stress. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(2), 195–216. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.2.195.
Chawla, N., & Ostafin, B. (2007). Experiential avoidance as a functional dimensional approach to psychopathology: An empirical review. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 63(9), 871–890. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.
Coelho, H. F., Canter, P. H., & Ernst, E. (2007). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy: Evaluating current evidence and informing future research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75(6), 1000–1005. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.75.6.1000.
Cooper, M., & McLeod, J. (2007). A pluralistic framework for counselling and psychotherapy: Implications for research. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research, 7(3), 135–143. https://doi.org/10.1080/14733140701566282.
Costello, E., Mustillo, S., Erkanli, A., Keeler, G., & Angold, A. (2003). Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 837–844.
Crits-christoph, P., Gibbons, M. B. C., & Mukherjee, D. (2013). Psychotherapy process-outcome research. In M. J. Lambert (Ed.), Bergin and Garfield’s handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (6th ed., pp. 298–340). Hoboken: Wiley.
Danziger, K. (1985). The methodological imperative in psychology. Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 15(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/004839318501500101.
Danziger, K. (1990). Deconstructing the subject: Historical origins of psychological research. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Dunbar, K., & Fugelsang, J. (2005). Scientific thinking and reasoning. In K. J. Holyoak & R. Morrison (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of thinking (pp. 705–725). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Dunlop, B. W., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2007). The role of dopamine in the pathophysiology of depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(3), 327–337.
Elliott, R. (2010). Psychotherapy change process research: Realizing the promise. Psychotherapy Research, 20(2), 123–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503300903470743.
Etkin, A., & Wager, T. D. (2007). Functional neuroimaging of anxiety: A meta-ana lysis of emotional processing in PTSD, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(10), 1476–1488. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07030504.
Feyerabend, P. K. (1981). Realism, rationalism and scientific method: Vol. 1. Philosophical papers. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Flückiger, C., Grosse Holtforth, M., Znoj, H. J., Caspar, F., & Wampold, B. E. (2013). Is the relation between early post-session reports and treatment outcome an epiphenomenon of intake distress and early response? A multi-predictor analysis in outpatient psychotherapy. Psychotherapy Research, 23(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2012.693773.
Frommer, J., & Rennie, D. L. (Eds.). (2001). Qualitative psychotherapy research: Methods and methodology. Lengerich: Pabst Science Publishers.
Frommer, J., Langenbach, M., & Streeck, U. (2004). Qualitative psychotherapy research in German-speaking countries. Psychotherapy Research, 14(1), 57–75. https://doi.org/10.1093/ptr/kph004.
Gadamer, H. G. (1989). Truth and method. New York: Continuum.
Gao, Z. (2014). Methodologism/methodological imperative. In T. Teo (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Critical Psychology (pp. 1176–1179). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5583-7_614.
Gelo, O. C. G. (2012). On research methods and their philosophical assumptions: “Raising the consciousness of researchers” again. Psychotherapie & Sozialwissenschaft, 14(2), 111–130.
Gelo, O. C. G., & Gallucci, M. (2016). Quantitative researchh. In H. L. Miller (Ed.), The SAGE encyclopedia of theory in psychology (pp. 780–783). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Gelo, O.C.G., & Gelo, C. (2012). Dialogical relationship among scientific paradigms in psychotherapy research. In S. for P. R. (SPR) (Ed.), 3rd Joint Meeting of the European and the United Kingdom Chapters of the Society for Psychotherapy Research (p. 46). Ulm, Germany: Ulmer Textbank.
Gelo, O. C. G., & Manzo, S. (2015). Quantitative approaches to treatment process, change process, and process-outcome research. In O. C. G. Gelo, A. Pritz, & B. Rieken (Eds.), Psychotherapy research: Foundations, process, and outcome (pp. 247–277). Vienna: Springer.
Gelo, O., Braakmann, D., & Benetka, G. (2008). Quantitative and qualitative research: Beyond the debate. Integrative Psychological & Behavioral Science, 42(3), 266–290. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-008-9078-3.
Gelo, O., Braakmann, D., & Benetka, G. (2009). ERRATUM: Quantitative and qualitative research: Beyond the debate. Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science, 43(4), 406–407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-009-9107-x.
Gelo, O.C.G, Auletta, A. F., & Braakmann, D. (2010). Aspetti teorico-metodologici e analisi dei dati nella ricerca in psicoterapia . Parte I: La ricerca sull’esito e la ricerca sul proces processo – dagli anni ’ 50 agli anni ’ 80 [Theoretical-methodological issues and data analysis in psychotherapy research. Ricerca in Psicoterapia/Research in Psychotherapy, 13(1), 61–91.
Gelo, Omar C.G., Pritz, A., & Rieken, B. (Eds.). (2015). Psychotherapy Research: Foundations, Process and Outcome. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-1382-0.
Gelso, C. J., Betz, N. E., Friedlander, M. L., Helms, J. E., Hill, C. E., Patton, M. J., Super, D. E., & Wampold, B. E. (1988). Research in counseling psychology: Prospects and recommendations. The Counseling Psychologist, 16(3), 385–406. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000088163006.
Gergen, K. J. (1994). Realities and relationships: Soundings in social construction. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Gigerenzer, G. (2010). Personal reflections on theory and psychology. Theory & Psychology, 20(6), 733–743. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354310378184.
Gold, C. (2015). Quantitative psychotherapy outcome research: Methodological issues. In O. C. G. Gelo, A. Pritz, & B. Rieken (Eds.), Psychotherapy research: Foundations, process, and outcome (pp. 537–558). Vienna: Springer.
Goldfried, M. R., & Wolfe, B. E. (1998). Toward a more clinically valid approach to therapy research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(1), 143–150. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006X.66.1.143.
Gone, J. P. (2009). A community-based treatment for native American historical trauma: Prospects for evidence-based practice. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77(4), 751–762. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015390.
Gottesman, I. I., & Gould, T. D. (2003). The endophenotype concept in psychiatry: Etymology and strategic intentions. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(4), 636–645. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.4.636.
Grant, B. F., Stinson, F. S., Dawson, D. A., Chou, P., Dufour, M. C., Compton, W., Pickering, R. P., & Kaplan, K. (2004). Prevalence and co-occurrence of substance use disorders and independentmood and anxiety disorders: Results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and relatedconditions. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61(8), 807–816. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.61.8.807.
Green, D., & Latchford, G. (2012). Maximising the benefits of psychotherapy: A practice-based evidence approach. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119967590.
Grol, R., & Grimshaw, J. (2003). From best evidence to best practice: Effective implementation of change in patients’ care. The Lancet, 362(9391), 1225–1230. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)14546-1.
Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 105–117). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Hanson, W. E., Creswell, J. W., Clark, V. L. P., Petska, K. S., & Creswell, J. D. (2005). Mixed methods research designs in counseling psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(2), 224–235. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.52.2.224.
Harris, K., Collinson, C., & das Nair, R. (2012). Service-users’ experiences of an early intervention in psychosis service: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 85(4), 456–469. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8341.2011.02043.x.
Hasin, D. S., Stinson, F. S., Ogburn, E., & Grant, B. F. (2007). Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV alcohol abuse and dependence in the United States: Results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(7), 830–842. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.7.830.
Hill, C. E., & Lambert, M. J. (2004). Methodological issues in studying psychotherapy process and outcomes. In Bergin and Garfield’s handbook of sychotherapy and behavior change (5th ed., pp. 84–135). New York: Wiley.
Hill, C. E., Nutt, E. A., & Jackson, S. (1994). Trends in psychotherapy process research: Samples, measures, researchers, and classic publications. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 41(3), 364–377. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.41.3.364.
Hill, C. E., Knox, S., Thompson, B. J., Williams, E. N., Hess, S. A., & Ladany, N. (2005). Consensual qualitative research: An update. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(2), 196–205. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.52.2.196.
Hofmann, S., Sawyer, A., Witt, A., & Oh, D. (2010). The effect of mindfulness- based therapy on anxiety and depression: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78(2), 169–183. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018555.
Hostetler, K. (1994). Community and neutrality in critical thought: A nonobjectivist view on the conduct and teaching of critical thinking. In K. S. Walters (Ed.), Re-thinking reason: New perspectives in critical thinking (pp. 135–154). Albany: State University of New York Press.
Jasso, G. (1988). Principles of theoretical analysis. Sociological Theory, 6(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.2307/201910.
Joiner, T. E., Sheldon, K. M., Williams, G., & Pettit, J. (2006). The integration of self-determination principles and scientifically informed treatments is the next tier. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(3), 318–319. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bpg028.
Kalivas, P. W., & Volkow, N. D. (2005). The neural basis of addiction:A pathology of motivation and choice. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(8), 1403–1413. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.8.1403.
Kapur, S. (2003). Psychosis as a state of aberrant salience: A framework linking biology, phenomenology, and pharmacology in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(1), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.1.13.
Karg, K., Burmeister, M., Shedden, K., & Sen, S. (2011). The serotonin transporter promoter variant (5-HTTLPR), stress, and depression meta-analysis revisited: Evidence of genetic moderation. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(5), 444–454. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.189.
Kazdin, A. E. (2009). Understanding how and why psychotherapy leads to change. Psychotherapy Research, 19, 418–428. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503300802448899.
Kellert, S. H., Longino, H. E., & Waters, C. K. (Eds.). (2006). Scientific pluralism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Kendell, R., & Jablensky, A. (2003). Distinguishing between the validity and utility of psychiatric diagnoses. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(1), 4–12. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.1.4.
Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005a). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 593–602. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.593.
Kessler, R. C., Wai, T. C., Demler, O., & Walters, E. E. (2005b). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 617–627. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.617.
Kessler, R. C., Adler, L., Barkley, R., Biederman, J., Conners, C. K., Demler, O., Faraone, S. V., Greenhill, L. L., Howes, M. J., Secnik, K., Spencer, T., Ustun, T. B., Walters, E. E., & Zaslavsky, A. M. (2006). The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(4), 716–723. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.163.4.716.
Kukla, A. (1982). Logical incoherence of value-free science. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43(5), 1014–1017. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.43.5.1014.
Kukla, A. (1989). Nonempirical issues in psychology. American Psychologist, 44(5), 785–794. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.5.785.
Kukla, A. (2001). Methods of theoretical psychology. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Lakatos, I. (1978). The methodology of scientific research programs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lambert, M. J. (Ed.). (2004). Bergin and Garfield’s handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (5th ed.). New York: Wiley.
Lambert, M. J. (Ed.). (2013a). Bergin and Garfield’s handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (6th ed.). New York: Wiley.
Lambert, M. J. (2013b). The efficacy and effectiveness of psychotherapy. In M. J. Lambert (Ed.), Bergin and Garfield’s handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (6th ed., pp. 169–218). Hoboken: Wiley.
Lambert, M. J. (2015). Outcome research: Methods for improving outcome in routine care. In O. C. G. Gelo, A. Pritz, & B. Rieken (Eds.), Psychotherapy research: Foundations, process, and outcome (pp. 593–610). Vienna: Springer.
Lanius, R. A., Vermetten, E., Loewenstein, R. J., Brand, B., Christian, S., Bremner, J. D., & Spiegel, D. (2010). Emotion modulation in PTSD: Clinical and neurobiological evidence for a dissociative subtype. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167(6), 640–647. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09081168.
Laudan, L. (1977). Progress and its progress. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Laudan, L. (1984). Science and values. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Lilienfeld, S. O., Ritschel, L. A., Lynn, S. J., Cautin, R. L., & Latzman, R. D. (2013). Why many clinical psychologists are resistant to evidence-based practice: Root causes and constructive remedies. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(7), 883–900. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.09.008.
Luppino, F. S., De Wit, L. M., Bouvy, P. F., Stijnen, T., Cuijpers, P., Penninx, B. W. J. H., & Zitman, F. G. (2010). Overweight, obesity, and depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67, 220–229. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.2.
Lutz, W., Ehrlich, T., Rubel, J., Hallwachs, N., Röttger, M.-A., Jorasz, C., Mocanu, S., Vocks, S., Schulte, D., & Tschitsaz-Stucki, A. (2013). The ups and downs of psychotherapy: Sudden gains and sudden losses identified with session reports. Psychotherapy Research, 23(1), 14–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2012.693837.
Marder, S. R., Essock, S. M., Miller, A. L., Buchanan, R. W., Casey, D. E., Davis, J. M., Kane, J. M., Lieberman, J. A., Schooler, N. R., Covell, N., Stroup, S., Weissman, E. M., Wirshing, D. A., Hall, C. S., Pogach, L., Pi-Sunyer, X., Bigger, J. T., Jr., Friedman, A., Kleinberg, D., Yevich, S. J., Davis, B., & Shon, S. (2004). Physical health monitoring of patients with schizophrenia. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(8), 1334–1349. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.8.1334.
McLeod, J. (2011). Qualitative research in counselling and psychotherapy (2nd ed.). London: Sage.
Merikangas, K. R., Akiskal, H. S., Angst, J., Greenberg, P. E., Hirschfeld, R. M., Petukhova, M., & Kessler, R. C. (2007). Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of bipolar Spectrum disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(5), 543–552.
Miklowitz, D. J. (2008). Adjunctive psychotherapy for bipolar disorder: State of the evidence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 1408–1419. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08040488.
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. G. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. PLoS Medicine, 6(7), e1000097. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097
Mörtl, K., & Gelo, O. C. G. (2015). Qualitative methods in psychotherapy process research. In O. C. G. Gelo, A. Pritz, & B. Rieken (Eds.), Psychotherapy research: Foundations, process, and outcome (pp. 381–428). Vienna: Springer.
Najavits, L. M., & Hien, D. (2013). Helping vulnerable populations: A comprehensive review of the treatment outcome literature on substance use disorder and PTSD. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69(5), 433–479. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.21980.
Oddli, H. W., & Rønnestad, M. H. (2012). How experienced therapists introduce the technical aspects in the initial alliance formation: Powerful decision makers supporting clients’ agency. Psychotherapy Research, 22(2), 176–193. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2011.633280.
Orlinsky, D. R., & Russell, R. L. (1994). Tradition and change in psychotherapy research. Notes on the fourth generation. In R. L. Russell (Ed.), Reassessing psychotherapy research (pp. 185–214). New York: Guilford Press.
Orlinsky, D. E., Grawe, K., & Parks, B. K. (1994). Process and outcome in psychotherapy – Noch Einmal. In M. J. Lambert (Ed.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (4th ed., pp. 270–376). New York: NY.
Pacchiarotti, I., Bond, D. J., Baldessarini, R. J., Nolen, W. A., Grunze, H., Licht, R. W., Post, R. M., Berk, M., Goodwin, G. M., Sachs, G. S., Tondo, L., Findling, R. L., Youngstrom, E. A., Tohen, M., Undurraga, J., González-Pinto, A., Goldberg, J. F., Yildiz, A., Altshuler, L. L., Calabrese, J. R., Mitchell, P. B., Thase, M. E., Koukopoulos, A., Colom, F., Frye, M. A., Malhi, G. S., Fountoulakis, K. N., Vázquez, G., Perlis, R. H., Ketter, T. A., Cassidy, F., Akiskal, H., Azorin, J. M., Valentí, M., Mazzei, D. H., Lafer, B., Kato, T., Mazzarini, L., Martínez-Aran, A., Parker, G., Souery, D., Özerdem, A., McElroy, S. L., Girardi, P., Bauer, M., Yatham, L. N., Zarate, C. A., Nierenberg, A. A., Birmaher, B., Kanba, S., el-Mallakh, R. S., Serretti, A., Rihmer, Z., Young, A. H., Kotzalidis, G. D., MacQueen, G. M., Bowden, C. L., Ghaemi, S. N., Lopez-Jaramillo, C., Rybakowski, J., Ha, K., Perugi, G., Kasper, S., Amsterdam, J. D., Hirschfeld, R. M., Kapczinski, F., & Vieta, E. (2013). The international society for bipolar disorders (ISBD) task force report on antidepressant use in bipolar disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 170(11), 1249–1262. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13020185.
Petrowski, K., Pokorny, D., Nowacki, K., & Buchheim, A. (2013). The therapist’s attachment representation and the patient’s attachment to the therapist. Psychotherapy Research, 23(1), 25–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2012.717307.
Phillips, J. C., Ingram, K. M., Smith, N. G., & Mindes, E. J. (2003). Methodological and content review of lesbian-, gay-, and bisexual-related articles in counseling journals: 1990-1999. The Counseling Psychologist, 31(1), 25–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000002239398.
Phillips, M. L., Travis, M. J., Fagiolini, A., & Kupfer, D. J. (2008). Medication effects in neuroimaging studies of bipolar disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165(3), 313–320. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07071066.
Pokorny, D. (2015). Quantitative data analysis in psychotherapy process research: Structures and procedures. In O. C. G. Gelo, A. Pritz, & B. Rieken (Eds.), Psychotherapy research: Foundations, process and outcome (pp. 229–245). Vienna: Springer.
Polanczyk, G., De Lima, M. S., Horta, B. L., Biederman, J., & Rohde, L. A. (2007). The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: A systematic review and metaregression analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(6), 942–948. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.164.6.942.
Polkinghorne, D. E. (1983). Methodology for the human sciences: Systems of inquiry. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Polkinghorne, D. E. (1991). Two conflicting calls for methodological reform. The Counseling Psychologist, 19(1), 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000091191008.
Polkinghorne, D. E. (2005). Language and meaning: Data collection in qualitative research. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(2), 137–145. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.52.2.137.
Ponterotto, J. G. (2005a). Integrating qualitative research requirements into professional psychology training programs in North America: Rationale and curriculum model. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 2(2), 97–116. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088705qp035oa.
Ponterotto, J. G. (2005b). Qualitative research in counseling psychology: A primer on research paradigms and philosophy of science. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(2), 126–136. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.52.2.126.
Raison, C. L., & Miller, A. H. (2003). When not enough is too much: The role of insufficient glucocorticoid signaling in the pathophysiology of stress-related disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(9), 1554–1565.
Raison, C. L., Lowry, C. A., & Rook, G. A. W. (2010). Inflammation, sanitation, and consternation: Loss of contact with coevolved, tolerogenic microorganisms and the pathophysiology and treatment of major depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67(12), 1211–1224. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.161.
Rennie, D. L. (2004). Anglo-north American qualitative counseling and psychotherapy research. Psychotherapy Research, 14(1), 37–55. https://doi.org/10.1093/ptr/kph003.
Rennie, D. L. (2012). Qualitative research as methodical hermeneutics. Psychological Methods, 17(3), 385–398. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029250.
Rennie, D. L., & Frommer, J. (2015). Applications of qualitative and mixed-methods counseling and psychotherapy research. In O. C. G. Gelo, A. Pritz, & B. Rieken (Eds.), Psychotherapy research: Foundations, process, and outcome (pp. 429–454). Vienna: Springer.
Richardson, L. K., Frueh, B. C., Grubaugh, A. L., Egede, L., & Elhai, J. D. (2009). Current directions in videoconferencing tele-mental Health Research. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 16(3), 323–338. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2850.2009.01170.x.
Rieken, B., & Gelo, O. C. G. (2015). The philosophy of psychotherapy science: Mainstream and alternative views. Psychotherapy Research: Foundations, process, and outcome, 67–92. Vienna: Springer.
Rodgers, B., & Elliott, R. (2015). Qualitative methods in psychotherapy outcome research. In O. C. G. Gelo, A. Pritz, & B. Rieken (Eds.), Psychotherapy research: Foundations, process, and outcome (pp. 559–578). Vienna: Springer.
Roth, A., & Fonagy, P. (2005). What works for whom? A critical review of psychotherapy research (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
Rush, A. J., Trivedi, M. H., Wisniewski, S. R., Nierenberg, A. A., Stewart, J. W., Warden, D., et al. (2006). Acute and longer- term outcomes in depressed outpatients requiring one or several treatment steps: A STAR * D report. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(11), 1905–1917.
Salvatore, S. (2011). Psychotherapy research needs theory: Outline for an epistemology of the clinical exchange. Integrative Psychological & Behavioral Science, 45(3), 366–388. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-011-9180-9.
Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental for generalized designs causal inference. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
Shapiro, S. L., Carlson, L. E., Astin, J. A., & Freedman, B. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62(3), 373–386. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.
Shelton, K., & Delgado-Romero, E. A. (2011). Sexual orientation microaggressions: The experience of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer clients in psychotherapy. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(2), 210–221. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022251.
Singh, A. A., & Shelton, K. (2011). A content analysis of LGBTQ qualitative research in counseling: A ten-year review. Journal of Counseling & Development, 89(2), 217–226. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2011.tb00080.x.
Slife, B. D. (1998). Raising the consciousness of researchers: Hidden assumptions in the behavioral sciences. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 15(3), 208–221. https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.15.3.208.
Slife, B. D. (2004). Theoretical challenges to therapy practice and research: The constraint of naturalism. In M. J. Lambert (Ed.), Bergin and Garfield’s handbook of psychotherapy and behaviour change (5th ed.). New York: Wiley.
Slife, B. D., & Gantt, E. E. (1999). Methodological pluralism: A framework for psychotherapy research. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55(12), 1453–1465. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(199912)55:12<1453::AID-JCLP4>3.0.CO;2-C.
Slife, B. D., & Williams, R. N. (1995). What’s behind the research: Discovering the hidden assumptions in the behavioral sciences. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Slife, B. D., & Williams, R. N. (1997). Toward a theoretical psychology: Should a subdiscipline be formally recognized? American Psychologist, 52(2), 117–129. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.52.2.117.
Slife, B. D., Wiggins, B. J., & Graham, J. T. (2005). Avoiding an EST monopoly: Toward a pluralism of philosophies and methods. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 35(1), 83–97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10879-005-0805-5.
Smaling, A. (2000). What kind of dialogue should paradigm-dialogues be? Quality and Quantity, 34(1), 51–63. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1004747524463.
Stegenga, J. (2014). Down with the hierarchies. Topoi, 33(2), 313–322. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11245-013-9189-4.
Stein, M. B., & McAllister, T. W. (2009). Exploring the convergence of posttraumatic stress disorder and mild traumatic brain injury. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 166(7), 768–776. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.08101604.
Stiles, W. B. (2015). Theory building, enriching, and fact gathering: Alternative purposes of psychotherapy research. In O. C. G. Gelo, A. Pritz, & B. Rieken (Eds.), Psychotherapy research: Foundations, process, and outcome (pp. 159–179). Vienna: Springer.
Suppe, F. (1977). The structure of scientific theories. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Timulak, L. (2009). Meta-analysis of qualitative studies: A tool for reviewing qualitative research findings in psychotherapy. Psychotherapy Research, 19(4–5), 591–600. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503300802477989.
Trivedi, M. H., Rush, A. J., Wisniewski, S. R., Nierenberg, A. A., Warden, D., Ritz, L., et al. (2006). Evaluation of outcomes with citalopram for depression using measurement-based care in STAR*D: Implications for clinical practice. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(1), 28–40. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.163.1.28.
Weisz, J. R., Doss, A. J., & Hawley, K. M. (2005). Youth psychotherapy outcome research: A review and critique of the evidence base. Annual Review of Psychology, 56(1), 337–363. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141449.
Westerman, M. A. (2006). Quantitative research as an interpretive enterprise: The mostly unacknowledged role of interpretation in research efforts and suggestions for explicitly interpretive quantitative investigations. New Ideas in Psychology, 24(3), 189–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2006.09.004.
Wood, R. T. A., & Griffiths, M. D. (2007). A qualitative investigation of problem gambling as an escape-based coping strategy. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 80(1), 107–125. https://doi.org/10.1348/147608306X107881.
Yanchar, S. C., & Slife, B. D. (2004). Teaching critical thinking by examining assumptions. Teaching of Psychology, 31(2), 85–90. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328023top3102_2.
Yanchar, S. C., Slife, B. D., & Warne, R. (2008). Critical thinking as disciplinary practice. Review of General Psychology, 12(3), 265–281. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.12.3.265.
Zarate, C. A., Singh, J. B., Carlson, P. J., Brutsche, N. E., Ameli, R., Luckenbaugh, D. A., Charney, D. S., & Manji, H. K. (2006). A randomized trial of an N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist in treatment-resistant major depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63(8), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.63.8.856.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the following SPR past presidents who replied to our survey: Lynne Angus, Lorna Smith Benjamin, Larry E. Beutler, Louis G. Castonguay, John Clarkin, Paul Crits-Christoph, Guillermo de la Parra, Irene Elkin, Robert Elliot, Marvin R. Goldfried, Leslie S. Greenberg, Alan S. Gurman, Clara E. Hill, Mardi J. Horowitz, Horst Kächele, Michael J. Lambert, Erhard Mergenthaler, David E. Orlinksy, William E. Piper, George Silberschatz, William B. Stiles, Bernhard Strauß, Jeanne Watson, Hadas Wiseman.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
Omar C. G. Gelo declares that he has no conflict of interest. Gloria Lagetto declares that she has no conflict of interest. Chiara Dinoi declares that she has no conflict of interest. Erika Belfiore declares that she has no conflict of interest. Elisa Lombi declares that she has no conflict of interest. Stefano Blasi declares that she has no conflict of interest. Massimo Aria declares that she has no conflict of interest. Enrico Ciavolino declares that she has no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gelo, O.C.G., Lagetto, G., Dinoi, C. et al. Which Methodological Practice(s) for Psychotherapy Science? A Systematic Review and a Proposal. Integr. psych. behav. 54, 215–248 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-019-09494-3
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-019-09494-3