Abstract
Homo sapiens is not just a tool-using species, they also can invent and develop tools. This is the feature that distinguishes humans from other species. It is necessary to get rid of the perceptual dominance of the present state of the material to invent and develop a tool. It is based on a mental process: designing. So how was that possible? In this article, I propose an evolutionary hypothesis in response to this question: the referential triangle. Accordingly, the relationship that people establish with things is mentally indirect, but the relationship they establish with each other is mentally direct. The hypothesis claims that the mental solutions of people have naturally established with each other are also used to invent and develop tools. The latest and most interesting product of this mechanism is artificial intelligence. Because artificial intelligence also acts as an inorganic system. What distinguishes it from other machines in this context is its social behavior. Artificial intelligence can generate social signals. So can artificial intelligence be both a tool and a partner at the same time in the referential triangle established with the tools by the human? In other words, can children, for instance, socially interact with artificial intelligence, just as they do naturally with people around? The article draws attention to that this problem should be included in the cultural psychological research agenda.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Akhtar, N., Jipson, J., & Callanan, M. A. (2001). Learning words through overhearing. Child Development, 72(2), 416–430.
Bacher, K., Allen, S., Lindholm, A. K., Bejder, L., & Krützen, M. (2010). Genes or culture: are mitochondrial genes associated with tool use in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops sp.)? Behavior Genetics, 40, 706–714.
Bakhtin, M. M. (1981). The dialogic imagination (M. Holquist, Ed., C. Emerson, Trans.). Austin: University of Texas Press.
Bakhtin, M. M. (1986). Speech genres and other late essays (C. Emerson, M. Holquist, Eds. & V. W. Mc Gee, Trans.). Austin: University of Texas Press.
Balaban, M. T., & Waxman, S. R. (1997). Do words facilitate object categorization in 9-month-old infants? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 64, 3–26.
Barnard, A. (2014). Simgesel Düşüncenin Doğuşu [Genesis of Symbolic Thought] (M. Doğan, Trans.). İstanbul: Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Yayınları.
Barnard, C., et al. (Producers) & Jonze, S. (Director) (2013). Her [Motion Picture]. USA: Annapurna Pictures.
Barsalou, L. W. (2012). The human conceptual system. In M. Spivey, K. McRae, & M. Joanisse (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of psycholinguistics (pp. 239–258). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Boroditsky, L., & Gaby, A. (2010). Remembrances of times east: absolute spatial representations of time in an Australian aboriginal community. Psychological Science, 21(11), 1635–1639.
Butler, L. P., & Markman, E. M. (2016). Navigating pedagogy: children’s developing capacities for learning from pedagogical interactions. Cognitive Development, 38, 27–35.
Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2008). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? 30 years later. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12, 187–192.
Cragg, L., & Nation, K. (2010). Language and the development of cognitive control. Topics in Cognitive Science, 2, 631–642.
Csibra, G., & Gergely, G. (2009). Natural pedagogy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 148–153.
Dehaene, S., Pegado, F., Braga, L. W., Ventura, P., Nunes, F. G., Jobert, A., Dehaene-Lambertz, G., Kolinsky, R., Morais, J., & Cohen, L. (2010). How learning to read changes the cortical networks for vision and language. Science, 330, 1359–1364.
Ferguson, B., & Lew-Williams, C. (2016). Communicative signals support abstract rule learning by 7-month-old infants. Scientific Reports, 6, 25434.
Fernyhough, C. (2008). Getting Vygotskian about theory of mind: mediation, dialogue, and the development of social understanding. Developmental Review, 28(2), 225–262.
Hare, B., & Tomasello, M. (2005). Human-like social skills in dogs? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(9), 439–444.
Hasse, C. (2015). An anthropology of learning. New York/London: Springer.
Hasson, U., Ghazanfar, A. A., Galantucci, B., Garrod, S., & Keysers, C. (2012). Brain-to-brain coupling: a mechanism for creating and sharing a social world. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(2), 114–121.
Herrmann, E., Call, J., Hernández-Lloreda, M. V., Hare, B., & Tomasello, M. (2007). Humans have evolved specialized skills of social cognition: the cultural intelligence hypothesis. Science, 317, 1360–1366.
Hirsh-Pasek, K., Zosh, J. M., Golinkoff, R. M., Gray, J. H., Robb, M. B., & Kaufman, J. (2015). Putting education in “educational” apps: lessons from the science of learning. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 16(1), 3–34.
Horner, V., & Whiten, A. (2005). Causal knowledge an imitation/emulation switching in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and children (Homo sapiens). Animal Cognition, 8, 164–181.
Jablonka, E. & Lamb, M. J. (2011). Evrimin Dört Boyutu: Yaşam Tarihinde Genetik, Epigenetik, Davranışsal ve Simgesel Değişimler [Evolution in Four Dimensions: Genetic, Epigenetic, Behavioral, and Symbolic Variation in the History of Life] (M. Doğan, Trans.). İstanbul: Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Yayınları.
Kubrick, S. (Producer & Director) (1968). 2001: A Space Odyssey [Motion Picture]. UK, USA: Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM), Stanley Kubrick Productions.
Kuhl, P. K., Tsao, F.-M., & Liu, H.-M. (2003). Foreign-language experience in infancy: effects of short-term exposure and social interaction on phonetic learning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 100(15), 9096–9101.
Lewkowicz, D. J., & Ghazanfar, A. A. (2009). The emergence of multisensory systems through perceptual narrowing. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 470–478.
Lewontin, R. C., Rose, S., & Kamin, L. J. (2018). Genlerimizden İbaret Değiliz: Biyoloji, İdeoloji ve İnsan Doğası [Not in Our Genes: Biology, Ideology, and Human Nature] (G. K. Gevinç et al., Trans.). İstanbul: Yordam. (Original work published 1984).
Liu, X., Somel, M., Tang, L., Yan, Z., Jiang, X., Guo, S., Yuan, Y., He, L., Oleksiak, A., Zhang, Y., Li, N., Hu, Y., Chen, W., Qiu, Z., Pääbo, S., & Khaitovich, P. (2012). Extension of cortical synaptic development distinguishes humans from chimpanzees and macaques. Genome Research, 22(4), 611–622.
Liu, Y., Piazza, E. A., Simony, E., Shewokis, P. A., Onaral, B., Hasson, U., & Ayaz, H. (2017). Measuring speaker-listener neural coupling with functional near infrared spectroscopy. Scientific Reports, 7, 43293.
Luria, A. R., & Vygotsky, L. S. (1992). Ape, primitive man, and child: Essays in the history of behaviour. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf (Original work published 1930).
Nazzi, T., & Gopnik, A. (2001). Linguistic and cognitive abilities in infancy: when does language become a tool for categorization? Cognition, 80, B11–B20.
Okumura, Y., Kanakogi, Y., Kanda, T., Ishiguro, H., & Itakura, S. (2013). The power of human gaze on infant learning. Cognition, 128, 127–133.
Osiurak, F., Navarro, J., & Reynaud, E. (2018). How our cognition shapes and is shaped by technology: a common framework for understanding human tool-use interactions in the past, present, and future. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 293.
Pan, Y. (2016). Heading toward artificial intelligence 2.0. Engineering, 2, 409–423.
Preissler, M. A., & Carey, S. (2004). Do both pictures and words function as symbols for 18- and 24-month-old children? Journal of Cognition and Development, 5, 185–212.
Rogoff, B. (2003). The cultural nature of human development. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Rogoff, B., Mistry, J., Göncü, A., & Mosier, C. (1993). Guided participation in cultural activity by toddlers and caregivers. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 58(179), i.
Roseberry, S., Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2014). Skype me! Socially contingent interactions help toddlers learn language. Child Development, 85(3), 956–970.
Searle, J. R. (2006). Zihin Dil Toplum, Gerçek Dünyada Felsefe [Mind, Language And Society: Philosophy In The Real World] (A. Tural, Trans.). İstanbul: Litera Yayıncılık. (Original work published 1998).
Sennett, R. (2012). Beraber [Together] (İ. Özküralpli, Trans.). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları.
Şerif, M. (1985). Toplumsal Kuralların Psikolojisi [The Psychology of Social Norms] (İ. Sandıkçıoğlu, Trans.). İstanbul: Alan Yayıncılık. (Original work published 1936).
Stephens, G. J., Silbert, L. J., & Hasson, U. (2010). Speaker–listener neural coupling underlies successful communication. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(32), 14425–14430.
Strouse, G. A., & Ganea, P. A. (2017). Toddlers’ word learning and transfer from electronic and print books. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 156, 129–142.
Strouse, G. A., & Troseth, G. L. (2014). Supporting toddlers’ transfer of word learning from video. Cognitive Development, 30, 47–64.
Sullivan, J., & Barner, D. (2016). Discourse bootstrapping: preschoolers use linguistic discourse to learn new words. Developmental Science, 19(1), 63–75.
Tomasello, M. (2005). Constructing a language: A usage-based theory of language acquisition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Tomasello, M. (2008). Origins of human communication. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
Tomasello, M. (2009). Why we cooperate? Cambridge: The MIT Press.
Tomasello, M. (2014). A natural history of human thinking. London: Harvard University Press.
Tomasello, M., & Carpenter, M. (2007). Shared intentionality. Developmental Science, 10(1), 121–125.
Tomasello, M., Carpenter, M., Call, J., Behne, T., & Moll, H. (2005). Understanding and sharing intentions: the origins of cultural cognition. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28(4), 675–735.
Tomasello, M., Carpenter, M., & Liszkowski, U. (2007). A new look at infant pointing. Child Development, 78(3), 705–722.
Tomasello, M., Melis, A., Tennie, C., & Herrmann, E. (2012). Two key steps in the evolution of human cooperation: the interdependence hypothesis. Current Anthropology, 56, 1–20.
Turing, A. (1950). Computing machinery and intelligence. Mind, 49, 433–460.
Valsiner, J. (2014). An invitation to cultural psychology. London: Sage.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). Thinking and speech. The Collected Works of L. S. Vygotsky (Vol. 1). New York: Plenum. (Original work published 1934).
Warneken, F. (2013). Young children proactively remedy unnoticed accidents. Cognition, 126, 101–108.
Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2006). Altruistic helping in human infants and young chimpanzees. Science, 311, 1301–1303.
Yıldız, T. (2013). Bir kelime neyi değiştirir? Boyut değiştirerek eşleme görevine kavramsal ağların etkisi [What does a word alter? The effect of conceptual networks on the dimensional change sorting task]. Nesne Psikoloji Dergisi, 1(1), 1–19.
Zack, E., & Barr, R. (2016). The role of interactional quality in learning from touch screens during infancy: context matters. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1–12.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of Interest
The author declares that he has no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by the author.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Yıldız, T. Human-Computer Interaction Problem in Learning: Could the Key Be Hidden Somewhere Between Social Interaction and Development of Tools?. Integr. psych. behav. 53, 541–557 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-019-09484-5
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-019-09484-5