Abstract
Sexual consent, or the communication of willingness to participate in sex, is crucial in all sexual interactions. Whereas educators and researchers emphasize an ideal of consent (i.e., “affirmative” consent), lay practices of consent rarely conform to this ideal. In this mixed-methods online study (N = 231), we investigated participants’ spontaneous conceptualizations of consent, gender differences in sexual consent conceptualizations, and relations of those conceptualizations to measures of sexual consent attitudes and behaviours. There was considerable variation in the complexity of participants’ definitions, which reflected seven core behavioural themes. Certain themes (e.g., articulation of boundaries, consent as a process) aligned with affirmative consent attitudes, but others (e.g., consent as internal desire, lack of coercion) did not. The results suggest that participants have a sophisticated spontaneous understanding of consent, with specific areas that differ from the affirmative consent view. Further, the results suggest some aspects of affirmative consent may not be relevant to all audiences. We discuss the implications of these findings for engaging audiences in sexual consent educational initiatives.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Beres, M. A. (2007). “Spontaneous” sexual consent: An analysis of sexual consent literature. Feminism and Psychology, 17(1), 93–108. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353507072914
Beres, M. A. (2010). Sexual miscommunication? Untangling assumptions about sexual communication between casual sex partners. Culture, Health, and Sexuality, 12(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691050903075226
Beres, M. A. (2014). Rethinking the concept of consent for anti-sexual violence activism and education. Feminism and Psychology, 24(3), 373–389. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353514539652
Brady, G., Lowe, P., Brown, G., Osmond, J., & Newman, M. (2018). ‘All in all it is just a judgment call’: Issues surrounding sexual consent in young people’s heterosexual encounters. Journal of Youth Studies, 21(1), 35–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2017.1343461
Brennan, K. A., Clark, C. L., & Shaver, P. R. (1998). Self-report measurement of adult attachment: An integrative overview. In J. A. Simpson & W. S. Rholes (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 46–76). Guilford Press.
Byers, E. S., & Demmons, S. (1999). Sexual satisfaction and sexual self-disclosure within dating relationships. Journal of Sex Research, 36(2), 180–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499909551983
California Senate Bill SB-967. (2014). Student safety: Sexual assault. Section 1. (a) (1). Retrieved from http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=201320140SB967
Cense, M., Bay-Cheng, L., & van Dijk, L. (2018). ‘Do I score points if I say “no”?’: Negotiating sexual boundaries in a changing normative landscape. Journal of Gender-Based Violence, 2(2), 277–291. https://doi.org/10.1332/239868018X15266373560443
Criminal Code of Canada, R. S. C. (1985), c. C-46 s. 273.1(1). https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/c-46/
Curtis, J. N., & Burnett, S. (2017). Affirmative consent: What do college student leaders think of “yes means yes” as the standard for sexual behaviour? American Journal of Sexuality Education, 12(3), 201–214. https://doi.org/10.1080/15546128.2017.1328322
Edwards, J., Rehman, U. S., & Byers, E. S. (2022). Perceived barriers and rewards to sexual consent communication: A qualitative analysis. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 39(8), 2408–2434. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2024.2304239
Emmers-Sommer, T. M. (2016). Do men and women differ in their perceptions of women’s and men’s saying “no” when they mean “yes” to sex?: An examination between and within gender. Sexuality and Culture, 20, 373–385. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-015-9330-1
Featherstone, L., Byrnes, C., Maturi, J., Minto, K., Mickelburgh, R., & Donaghy, P. (2024). The limits of consent. Palgrave Socio-Legal Studies. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-46622-9_2
Gagnon, J. H. (1990). The explicit and implicit use of the scripting perspective in sex research. Annual Review of Sex Research, 1(1), 1–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/10532528.1990.10559854
Geer, J. H. (1996). Gender differences in the organization of sexual information. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 25(1), 91–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02437908
Geer, J. H., & Manguno-Mire, G. M. (1996). Gender differences in cognitive processes in sexuality. Annual Review of Sex Research, 7(1), 90–124. https://doi.org/10.1080/10532528.1996.10559910
Glace, A. M., Zatkin, J. G., & Kaufman, K. L. (2020). Moving toward a new model of sexual consent: The development of the Process-Based Consent Scale. Advance Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801220952159
Graf, A. S., & Johnson, V. (2020). Describing the “gray” area of consent: A comparison of sexual consent understanding across the adult lifespan. Journal of Sex Research. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2020.1765953
Griner, S. B., Kline, N., Monroy, E., & Thompson, E. L. (2021). Sexual consent communication among sexual and gender minority college students. The Journal of Sex Research, 58(4), 462–468.
Hall, D. S. (1998). Consent for sexual behavior in a college student population. Electronic Journal of Human Sexuality, 1. Retrieved from http://www.ejhs.org/volume1/consent1.htm
Harris, K. L. (2018). Yes means yes and no means no, but both these mantras need to go: Communication myths in consent education and anti-rape activism. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 46(2), 155–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/00909882.2018.1435900
Hickman, S. E., & Muehlenhard, C. L. (1999). “By the semi-mystical appearance of a condom”: How young women and men communicate sexual consent in heterosexual situations. Journal of Sex Research, 36(3), 258–272. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499909551996
Hsieh, H., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277–1288. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687
Humphreys, T. (2007). Perceptions of sexual consent: The impact of relationship history and gender. Journal of Sex Research, 44(4), 307–315. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490701586706
Humphreys, T., & Herold, E. (2007). Sexual consent in heterosexual relationships: Development of a new measure. Sex Roles, 57, 305–315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9264-7
Humphreys, T. P., & Brousseau, M. M. (2010). The Sexual Consent Scale-Revised: Development, reliability, and preliminary validity. Journal of Sex Research, 47(5), 420–428. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490903151358
Impett, E. A., & Peplau, L. A. (2002). Why some women consent to unwanted sex with a dating partner: Insights from attachment theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26(4), 360–370. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-6402.t01-1-00075
Jones, S., Milnes, K., & Turner-Moore, R. (2023). ‘Doing things you don’t wanna do’: young people’s understandings of power inequalities and the implications for sexual consent. Journal of Youth Studies. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2022.2152317
Jozkowski, K. N. (2015). Barriers to affirmative consent policies and the need for affirmative sexuality. The University of Pacific Law Review, 47, 741.
Jozkowski, K. N., Marcantonio, T. L., & Hunt, M. E. (2017). College students’ sexual consent communication and perceptions of sexual double standards: A qualitative investigation. Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 49(4), 237–244. https://doi.org/10.1363/psrh.12041
Jozkowski, K. N., & Peterson, Z. D. (2013). College students and sexual consent: Unique insights. Journal of Sex Research, 50(6), 517–523. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2012.700739
Jozkowski, K. N., Peterson, Z. D., Sanders, S. A., Dennis, B., & Reece, M. (2014a). Gender differences in heterosexual college students’ conceptualizations and indicators of sexual consent: Implications for contemporary sexual assault prevention education. Journal of Sex Research, 51(8), 904–916. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2013.792326
Jozkowski, K. N., Sanders, S., Peterson, Z. D., Dennis, B., & Reece, M. (2014b). Consenting to sexual activity: The development and psychometric assessment of dual measures of consent. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43(3), 437–450. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-013-0225-7
Jozkowski, K. N., & Wiersma, J. D. (2015). Does drinking alcohol prior to sexual activity influence college students’ consent? International Journal of Sexual Health, 27(2), 156–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317611.2014.951505
Jozkowski, K. N., & Willis, M. (2020). People perceive transitioning from a social to a private setting as an indicator of sexual consent. Psychology and Sexuality. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2020.1769162
King, B. M., Fallon, M. R., Reynolds, E. P., Williamson, K. L., Barber, A., & Giovinazzo, A. R. (2021). College students’ perceptions of concurrent/successive nonverbal behaviors as sexual consent. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(23–24), 13121–13135. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520905544
Litman, L., Robinson, J., & Abberbock, T. (2017). TurkPrime.com: A versatile crowdsourcing data acquisition platform for the behavioral sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 49, 433–442. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-016-0727-z
MacNeil, S., & Byers, E. S. (2009). Role of sexual self-disclosure in the sexual satisfaction of long-term heterosexual couples. Journal of Sex Research, 46(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490802398399
Marcantonio, T., Jozkowski, K. N., & Lo, W. (2018a). Beyond “just saying no”: A preliminary evaluation of strategies college students use to refuse sexual activity. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47(2), 341–351. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-017-1130-2
Marcantonio, T., Jozkowski, K. N., & Wiersma-Mosley, J. (2018b). The influence of partner status and sexual behavior on college women’s consent communication and feelings. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 44(8), 776–786. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2018.1474410
Marg, L. Z. (2020). College men’s conceptualization of sexual consent at a large, racially/ethnically diverse Southern California University. American Journal of Sexuality Education, 15(3), 371–408.
Merwin, K. E., O’Sullivan, L. F., & Rosen, N. O. (2017). We need to talk: Disclosure of sexual problems is associated with depression, sexual functioning, and relationship satisfaction in women. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 43(8), 786–800. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2017.1283378
Meston, C. M., & Buss, D. M. (2007). Why humans have sex. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36(4), 477–507. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-007-9175-2
Monson, C. M., Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J., & Taft, C. (2009). Sexual aggression in intimate relationships. In K. D. Oleary & E. M. Woodin (Eds.), Psychological and physical aggression in couples (pp. 37–57). American Psychological Association.
Muehlenhard, C. L., & Hollabaugh, L. C. (1988). Do women sometimes say no when they mean yes? The prevalence and correlates of women’s token resistance to sex. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(5), 872–879. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.5.872
Muehlenhard, C. L., Humphreys, T. P., Jozkowski, K. N., & Peterson, Z. D. (2016). The complexities of sexual consent among college students: A conceptual and empirical review. The Journal of Sex Research, 53(4–5), 457–487. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1146651
Necka, E. A., Cacioppo, S., Norman, G. J., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2016). Measuring the prevalence of problematic respondent behaviors among MTurk, campus, and community participants. PLoS ONE. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0157732
Newstrom, N. P., Harris, S. M., & Miner, M. H. (2021). Sexual consent: How relationships, gender, and sexual self-disclosure affect signaling and interpreting cues for sexual consent in a hypothetical heterosexual sexual situation. Sex Roles, 84, 454–464. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01178-2
Orchowski, L. M., Oesterle, D. W., Moreno, O., Yusufov, M., Berkowitz, A., Abbey, A., et al. (2022). A qualitative analysis of sexual consent among heavy-drinking college men. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(7–8), 5566–5593.
Palermo, A. M., Harkins, L., & Campbell, A. (2022). Do I really need to ask for a kiss? University students’ perspectives and expressions of sexual consent. Sexuality and Culture, 26, 249–267. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-021-09889-8
Paul, L. A., & Gray, M. J. (2011). Sexual assault programming on college campuses: Using social psychological belief and behavior change principles to improve outcomes. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 12(2), 99–109. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838010390710
Righi, M. K., Bogen, K. W., Kuo, C., & Orchowski, L. M. (2019). A qualitative analysis of beliefs about sexual consent among high school students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519842855
Rittenhour, K., & Sauder, M. (2023). Identifying the impact of sexual scripts on consent negotiations. The Journal of Sex Research. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2023.2182266
Schachner, D. A., & Shaver, P. R. (2004). Attachment dimensions and sexual motives. Personal Relationships, 11(2), 179–195. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2004.00077.x
Shafer, A., Ortiz, R. R., Thompson, B., & Huemmer, J. (2018). The role of hypermasculinity, token resistance, rape myth, and assertive sexual consent communication among college men. Journal of Adolescent Health, 62(3), S44–S50.
Shumlich, E. J., & Fisher, W. A. (2018). Affirmative sexual consent? Direct and unambiguous consent is rarely included in discussions of recent sexual interactions. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 27(3), 248–260. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjhs.2017-0040
Shumlich, E. J., & Fisher, W. A. (2019). An information-motivation-behavioural skills model analysis of young adults’ sexual behaviour patterns and regulatory requirements for sexual consent in Canada. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 28(3), 277–291. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjhs.2018-0040
Silver, N., & Hovick, S. R. (2018). A schema of denial: The influence of rape myth acceptance on beliefs, attitudes, and processing of affirmative consent campaign messages. Journal of Health Communication, 23(6), 505–513. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2018.1473532
Spiering, M., Everaerd, W., & Laan, E. (2004). Conscious processing of sexual information: Mechanisms of appraisal. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 33(4), 369–380. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:ASEB.0000028890.08687.94
Vannier, S. A., & O’Sullivan, L. F. (2010). Sex without desire: Characteristics of occasions of sexual compliance in young adults’ committed relationships. Journal of Sex Research, 47(5), 429–439. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490903132051
Wiederman, M. W. (2005). The gendered nature of sexual scripts. The Family Journal, 13(4), 496–502. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480705278729
Willis, M., & Jozkowski, K. N. (2018). Barriers to the success of affirmative consent initiatives: An application of the social ecological model. American Journal of Sexuality Education, 13(3), 324–336. https://doi.org/10.1080/15546128.2018.1443300
Willis, M., & Jozkowski, K. N. (2019). Sexual precedent’s effect on sexual consent communication. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48(6), 1723–1734. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1348-7
Winslett, A. H., & Gross, A. M. (2008). Sexual boundaries: An examination of the importance of talking before touching. Violence against Women, 14(5), 542–562. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208315527
Wood, E. F., Rikkonen, K. J., & Davis, D. (2019a). Definition, communication, and interpretation of sexual consent. In W. T. O’Donohue & P. A. Schewe (Eds.), Handbook of sexual assault and sexual assault prevention (pp. 399–421). Berlin: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23645-8_24
Wood, R., Hirst, J., Wilson, L., & Burns-O’Connell, G. (2019b). The pleasure imperative? Reflecting on sexual pleasure’s inclusion in sex education and sexual health. Sex Education, 19(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2018.1468318
Worsdale, A., & Kosenko, K. A. (2024). Meanings and dilemmas of consent communication for sexual minorities. Communication Monographs. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2024.2304239
Funding
This work was supported by a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, awarded to Uzma Rehman.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Jessica Edwards and Uzma Rehman. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Jessica Edwards and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors have no relevant financial interests to disclose. This manuscript is based on the first author’s Master’s thesis. Thus, the manuscript overlaps with the thesis document that is located on the University of Waterloo website.
Ethics approval
This study was performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Approval was granted by the Ethics Committee of the University of Waterloo (#40759; May 1, 2019).”
Consent to participate
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Consent to publish
The authors affirm that human research participants provided informed consent for publication of their quotes from the open-ended responses.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Edwards, J., Rehman, U.S., Bedi-Padda, T. et al. Key Themes in Community Participants’ Definitions of Sexual Consent and Their Association with Sexual Consent Attitudes and Behaviours. Sexuality & Culture (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-024-10215-1
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-024-10215-1