Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Young People, Sexuality and the Age of Pornography

  • Review
  • Published:
Sexuality & Culture Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Recently interest into the effects of pornography on children and young people’s sexual development has increased leading to an increase in studies in the area, laws being changed and public concern growing. This paper aims to recap these findings including more recent studies carried out in the UK. The literature shows links between viewing pornography and sexually explicit material and young people’s attitudes and behaviours. This suggests that young people’s sexuality is affected by sexual imagery and that this influences children and young people’s sexual attitudes and behaviours. The impact is contingent on the young person’s support network, social learning and other demographic factors, not least gender which has been consistently found to be significant. Recent studies have found changes in sexual practices of young people which are attributed to viewing pornography such as an increase in anal sex and casual attitudes to consent. Links between porn use and sexual coercion have also been found. How and in what ways children and young people are affected by such imagery—and what can be done to reduce the negative impact on young people is debated in the light of the gaps in the literature and the issues with the existing literature. Further need for study is discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alexy, E. M., Burgess, A. W., & Prentky, R. A. (2009). Pornography use as a risk marker for an aggressive pattern of behaviour among sexually reactive children and adolescents. Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 14, 442–453.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2001). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behaviour, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal and prosocial behaviour: A metaanalytic review of the scientific literature. Psychological Science, 12, 353–359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • BBC. (2020). https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/world-asia-53103684/the-new-zealand-porn-ad-designed-to-protect-children. Accessed 20 June 2020.

  • Becker, J., & Stein, R. M. (1991). Is sexual erotica associated with sexual deviance in adolescent males? International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 14, 85–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, C. J. (2015). ‘Cocked, locked and ready to fuck?’ A synthesis and review of the gay male pornography. Psychology and Sexuality, 6(1), 5–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bitner, R. (2012). Queering sex education: Young adult literature with LGBT content as complementary sources of sex and sexuality education. Journal of LGBT Youth, 9, 357–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bleakley, A., Hennessy, M., & Fishbein, M. (2011a). A model of adolescents’ seeking of sexual content in their media choices. Journal of Sex Research, 48, 309–315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bleakley, A., Hennessy, M., Fishbein, M., & Jordan, A. (2011b). Using the integrative model to explain how exposure to sexual media content influences adolescent sexual behaviour. Health Education and Behavior, 38, 530–540.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonino, S., Ciairano, S., Rabaglietti, E., & Cattelino, E. (2006). Use of pornography and self-reported engagement in sexual violence among adolescents. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 3, 265–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boxer, P., Huesmann, L. R., Bushman, B. J., O’Brien, M., & Moceri, D. (2008). The role of violent media preference in cumulative developmental risk for violence and general aggression. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 417–428.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Braun-Courville, D. K., & Rojas, M. (2009). Exposure to sexually explicit websites and adolescent sexual attitudes and behaviours. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45, 156–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J., Horvath, M. A. H., Kelly, L., & Westmarland, N. (2010). Connections and disconnections: Assessing evidence, knowledge and practice in responses to rape. London: Government Equalities Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. D., & L’Engle, K. L. (2009). X-rated: Sexual attitudes and behaviors associated with US early adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit media. Communication Research, 36, 129–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, C. (2009). Adolescence, pornography and harm. Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, 368, 1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buckingham, D., & Bragg, S. (2003). Young people, media and personal relationships. London: Advertising Standards Authority, British Board of Film Classification, British Broadcasting Corporation, Broadcasting Standards Commission, Independent Television Commission.

  • Cameron, K. A., Salazar, L. F., Bernhardt, J. M., Burgess-Whitman, N., Wingood, G. M., & DiClemente, R. J. (2005). Adolescents’ experience with sex on the web: Results from online focus groups. Journal of Adolescence, 28, 525–540.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conrad, K., Dixon, T. L., & Zhang, Y. (2009). Controversial rap themes, gender portrayals and skin tone distortion: A content analysis of rap music videos. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 53(1), 134–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cowell, A., & Smith, E. (2009). Streetwise pornography research. Newcastle upon Tyne: Streetwise Young People’s Project.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crabbe, M., & Corlett, D. (2010). Eroticising inequality: Technology, pornography and young people. DVRCV Quarterly, 3, 1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crouch, N. S., Deans, R., Michala, L., Liao, L.-M., & Creighton, S. M. (2011). Clinical characteristics of well women seeking labial reduction surgery: A prospective study. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 118(12), 1507–1510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davies, P. (2003). The magenta book. Guidance notes for policy evaluation and analysis. Chapter 2: What do we already know?. London: Cabinet Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Day, A. (2014). Getting the ‘blues’: the existence, diffusion and influence of pornography on young peoples’ sexual health in Sierra Leone. Culture, Health and Society, 16(2), 178–189.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dill, K. E., Brown, B. P., & Collins, M. A. (2008). Effects of exposure to sex-stereotyped video game characters on tolerance of sexual harassment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 1402–1408.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dill, K. E., & Thill, K. P. (2007). Video game characters and the socialization of gender roles: Young people’s perceptions mirror sexist media depictions. Sex Roles, 57, 852–864.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Disley, E., Weed, K., Reding, A., Clutterbuck, L., & Warnes, R. (2011). Individual disengagement from Al Qa’ida-influenced terrorist groups: A rapid evidence assessment to inform policy and practice in preventing terrorism. Home Office Occasional Paper 99, London.

  • Dombrowski, S. C., Gischlar, K. L., & Durst, T. (2007). Safeguarding young people from cyber pornography and cyber sexual predation: A major dilemma of the internet. Child Abuse Review, 16, 153–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flander, G. B., Cosic, I., & Profaca, B. (2009). Exposure of children to sexual content on the internet in Croatia. Child Abuse and Neglect, 33, 849–856.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fleming, M. J., Greentree, S., Cocotti-Muller, D., Elias, K. A., & Morrison, S. (2006). Safety in cyberspace: Adolescents’ safety and exposure online. Youth and Society, 38, 135–154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flood, M. (2007). Exposure to pornography among youth in Australia. Journal of Sociology, 43, 45–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flood, M. (2009). The harms of pornography exposure among children and young people. Child Abuse Review, 18, 384–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldman, J. D. G., & McCutchen, L. E. (2012). Teenagers’ web questions compared with a sexuality curriculum: An exploration. Educational Research, 54(4), 357–373.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, A. (2019). Beyond porn literacy: Drawing on young people’s pornography narratives to expand sex education pedagogies. Sex Education: Sexuality, Society and Learning, 20(1), 59–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gorman, S., Monk-Turner, E., & Fish, J. N. (2010). Free adult Internet web sites: How prevalent are degrading acts? Gender Issues, 27, 131–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gough, D. (2007). Weight of evidence: A framework for the appraisal of the quality and relevance of evidence. In J. Furlong & A. Oancea (Eds.), Applied and practice-based research. Special edition of research papers in education (Vol. 22, pp. 213–228).

  • Häggström-Nordin, E., Sandberg, J., Hanson, U., & Tydén, T. (2006). ‘It’s everywhere!’ Young Swedish people’s thoughts and reflections about pornography. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Science, 20, 386–393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Häggström-Nordin, E., Tydén, T., Hanson, U., & Larsson, M. (2009). Experiences of and attitudes towards pornography among a group of Swedish high school students. European Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care, 14, 277–284.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haninger, K., & Thomspson, K. M. (2004). Content and ratings of teen-rated video games. Journal of the American Medical Association, 291, 856–865.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horvath, M. A. H., Alys, L., Massey, K., Pina, A., Scally, M., & Adler, J. (2013). “Basically… porn is everywhere”: A rapid evidence assessment on the effects that access and exposure to pornography has on children and young people. London: Office for the Children’s Commissioner. http://www.childrenscommissioner.gov.uk/content/publications.

  • Horvath, M. A. H., Hansen, S., Apena-Rogers, S., & Adler, J. (2012). ‘It blocks out the problem and becomes the addiction’. The intersections between problem substance use and domestic and sexual violence experienced by young women in two London boroughs. London: Stella Project Young Women’s Initiative, AVA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Independent Parliamentary Inquiry into Online Child Protection. (2012). Findings and recommendations. Available http://www.safermedia.org.uk/Images/press-release-online-inquiry.pdf. Accessed 22 September 2018.

  • Kalof, L. (1999). The effects of gender and music video imagery on sexual attitudes. Journal of Social Psychology, 139, 378–385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kendall, C. N. (2004). Educating gay male youth: Since when is pornography a path towards self-respect? Journal of Homosexuality, 47, 83–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, Y. H. (2001). Korean adolescents’ health risk behaviors and their relationships with the selected psychological constructs. Journal of Adolescent Health, 29, 298–306.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, Y. H. (2011). Adolescents’ health behaviours and its associations with psychological variables. Central European Journal of Public Health, 19, 205–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kinsman, J., Nyanzi, S., & Pool, R. (2000). Socializing influences and the value of sex: The experience of adolescent school girls in rural Masaka, Uganda. Culture, Health and Sexuality, 2, 151–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirkup, J. (2012). Parents worry about sexualised children, one year after David Cameron promised cracking down on advertising. The Telegraph, 6 January. Available at www.telegraph.co.uk/women/mother-tongue/9311970/parents-worry-about-sexualised-children-one-year-after-David-Cameronpromised-crackdown-on-advertising.html.

  • Kreager, D. A., & Staff, J. (2009). The sexual double standard and adolescent peer acceptance. Social Psychology Quarterly, 72(2), 143–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kubicek, K., Beyer, W. J., Weiss, G., Iverson, E., & Kipke, M. D. (2010). In the dark: Young men’s stories of sexual initiation in the absence of relevant sexual health information. Health Education and Behavior, 37, 243–263.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • L’Engle, K. L., Brown, J. D., & Kenneavy, K. (2004). The mass media are an important context for adolescents’ sexual behaviour. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38, 186–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langevin, R., & Curnoe, S. (2004). The use of pornography during the commission of sexual offenses. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 48(3), 572–586.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laville, S. (2012). Access to online porn ‘twisting children’s view of sexual norms’. The Guardian, 13 June.

  • Livingstone, S., & Bober, M. (2003). UK children go online: Listening to young people’s experiences. London: LSE/EU Kids Online.

    Google Scholar 

  • Livingstone, S., & Bober, M. (2004). UK children go online: Surveying the experiences of young people and their parents. London: LSE/EU Kids Online.

    Google Scholar 

  • Livingstone, S., & Bober, M. (2005). UK children go online: Final report of key project findings. London: LSE/EU Kids Online.

    Google Scholar 

  • Livingstone, S., Bober, M., & Helsper, E. (2004). Active participation or just more information? Young people’s take up of opportunities to act and interact on the internet. London: LSE/EU Kids Online.

    Google Scholar 

  • Long, J. (2011). Anti-porn: The resurgence of anti-pornography feminism. London: Zed Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lou, C., Cheng, Y., Gao, E., Zuo, X., Emerson, M. R., & Zabin, L. S. (2012). Media’s contribution to sexual knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors for adolescents and young adults in three asian cities. Journal of Adolescent Health, 50, S26–S36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malamuth, N. (2001). Pornography. In N. J. Schudson (Ed.), International encyclopedia of social and behavioral sciences (Vol. 17, pp. 11816–11821). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Markey, P. M., & Markey, C. N. (2010). Vulnerability to violent video games: A review and integration of personality research. Review of General Psychology, 14, 82–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marston, C., & Lewis, R. (2014). Anal heterosex among young people and implications for health promotion: A qualitative study in the UK. British Medical Journal Open, 4, 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matković, T., Cohen, N., & Štulhofer, A. (2018). The use of sexually explicit material and its relationship to adolescent sexual activity. Journal of Adolescent Health, 62(5), 563–569.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mattebo, M., Larsson, M., Tydén, T., & Häggström-Nordin, E. (2014). Professionals’ perceptions of the effect of pornography on swedish adolescents. Public Health Nursing, 31(3), 196–205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mattebo, M., Larsson, M., Tydén, T., Olsson, T., & Häggström-Nordin, E. (2012). Hercules and Barbie? Reflections on the influence of pornography and its spread in the media and society in groups of adolescents in Sweden. European Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care, 17, 40–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McNair, B. (2002). Striptease culture: Sex, media and the democratisation of desire. London: Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Mesch, G. S. (2009). Social bonds and internet pornographic exposure among adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 32, 601–618.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, K. J., Finkelhor, D., & Wolak, J. (2003). The exposure of youth to unwanted sexual material on the internet: A national survey of risk, impact, and prevention. Youth and Society, 34, 330–358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Myers, W. C., Eggleston, C. F., & Smoak, P. (2003). A media violence-inspired juvenile sexual homicide offender 13 years later. Journal of Forensic Science, 48, 1–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Njue, C., Voeten, H., & Remes, P. (2011). Porn video shows, local brew and transactional sex: HIV risk among youth in Kisumu, Kenya. BMC Public Health, 11, 635.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palasinski, M., Riggs, D., & Allison, L. (2013). Can computer-mediated communication increase adolescents’ sexually risky behaviors? American Psychologist, 68(9), 887–889.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Papadopoulos, L. (2010). Sexualisation of young people review. London: Department of Health.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2006). Adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit online material and recreational attitudes toward sex. Journal of Communication, 56, 639–660.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2007). Adolescents’ exposure to a sexualized media environment and their notions of women as sex objects. Sex Roles, 56, 381–395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2008). Adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit internet material and sexual preoccupancy: A three-wave panel study. Media Psychology, 11, 207–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2009a). Adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit internet material and notions of women as sex objects: Assessing causality and underlying processes. Journal of Communication, 59, 407–433.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2009b). Adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit internet material and sexual satisfaction: A longitudinal study. Human Communication Research, 35, 171–194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2010). Processes underlying the effects of adolescents’ use of sexually explicit internet material: The role of perceived realism. Communication Research, 37, 375–399.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2011). The influence of sexually explicit internet material and peers on stereotypical beliefs about women’s sexual roles: Similarities and differences between adolescents and adults. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 14(9), 511–517.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2014). Does exposure to sexually explicit internet material increase body dissatisfaction? A longitudinal study. Computers in Human Behavior, 36, 297–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Price, J., Patterson, R., Regnerus, M., & Walley, J. (2016). How much more XXX is generation X consuming? Evidence of changing attitudes and behaviors related to pornography since 1973. The Journal of Sex Research, 53, 12–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quinlivan, K. (2018). Exploring contemporary issues in sexuality education with young people: Theories in practice. Basingstoke: Palgrave.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, E. E., Ortiz, R. R., & White, S. R. (2015). Emerging adults’ responses to active mediation of pornography during adolescence. Journal of Children and Media, 9(2), 160–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roe, K. (1987). Adolescents’ video use: A structural-cultural approach. American Behavioral Scientist, 30, 522–532.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scharrer, E. (2004). Virtual violence: Gender and aggression in video game advertisements. Mass Communication and Society, 7, 393–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sinković, M., Štulhofer, A., & Božić, J. (2012). Revisiting the association between pornography use and risky sexual behaviors: The role of early exposure to pornography and sexual sensation seeking. Journal of Sex Research, 50, 633–641.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sørensen, A. D., & Knudsen, S. V. (2006). Unge, kon og pornografi i Norden. Slutrapport (Youth, gender and pornography in the Nordic countries. Final report). Copenhagen: The Nordic Council of Ministers, ANP (Vol. 749).

  • Stermer, S. P., & Burkley, M. (2012). Xbox or SeXbox? An examination of sexualised content in video games. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6(7), 525–535.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornburgh, D., & Lin, H. (2002). Youth, pornography and the Internet: Can we provide sound choices in a safe environment?. Washington DC: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tydén, T., & Rogala, C. (2004). Sexual behaviour among young men in Sweden and the impact of pornography. International Journal of STD and AIDS, 15, 590–693.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Violence Against Women and Girls Strategy. (2016). https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/522166/VAWG_Strategy_FINAL_PUBLICATION_MASTER_vRB.PDF. Accessed 22 September 2018.

  • Wagner, K. G., & Cabosky, J. M. (2018). My sexual entertainment, my vote: How attitudes toward condom use in pornography related to support for California’s condom law. Sexuality and Culture, 22(2), 422–436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wallmyr, G., & Welin, C. (2006). Young people, pornography, and sexuality: Sources and attitudes. Journal of School Nursing, 22, 290–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, L. M. (2002). Does television exposure affect emerging adults’ attitudes and assumptions about sexual relationships? Correlational and experimental confirmation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31, 1–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, L. M., & Friedman, K. (2006). Using TV as a guide: Associations between television viewing and adolescents’ sexual attitudes and behaviour. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 133–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, L. M., Hansbrough, E. & Walker, E. (2005). Contributions of music exposure to black adolescents’ gender and sexual schemas. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20, 143–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolak, J., Mitchell, K., & Finkelhor, D. (2007). Unwanted and wanted exposure to online pornography in a national sample of youth internet users. Pediatrics, 119, 247–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, P. J., Sun, C., Steffen, N. J., & Tokunaga, R. S. (2014). Pornography, alcohol, and male sexual dominance. Communication Monographs, 4, 1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ybarra, M. L., & Mitchell, K. J. (2005). Exposure to internet pornography among children and adolescents: A national survey. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 8, 473–486.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Law and Criminal Justice Studies, Canterbury Christ Church University, Canterbury, Kent, CT1 1QU, England, UK

    Kristina Massey

  2. Faculty of Social and Applied Sciences, Canterbury Christ Church University, Canterbury, Kent, CT1 1QU, England, UK

    Jan Burns

  3. School of Psychology, Sociology and Politics, Canterbury Christ Church University, Canterbury, Kent, CT1 1QU, England, UK

    Anke Franz

Authors
  1. Kristina Massey
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jan Burns
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Anke Franz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kristina Massey.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no Conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

This article is a literature review and does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Massey, K., Burns, J. & Franz, A. Young People, Sexuality and the Age of Pornography. Sexuality & Culture 25, 318–336 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-020-09771-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-020-09771-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation