Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Law and LGBQ-Parent Families

  • Review
  • Published:
Sexuality & Culture Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper addresses how the law affects LGBQ-parent families. We first outline the legal landscape that LGBQ parents face in the US, underscoring that it varies drastically by state and creates inequity for families. Reviewing existing social science research, we then address how the law affects three processes for LGBQ people: desiring parenthood, becoming a parent, and experiencing parenthood. Our review indicates that the law affects if and how LGBQ people become parents. LGBQ people consider the law as they make decisions about whether to pursue adoption, donor insemination, or surrogacy and often view the latter two pathways as the most legally secure. Further, the law continues to be salient for LGBQ parents throughout parenthood and affects family well-being. Specifically, legal inequity diminishes parent’s well-being, the relationship among couples who are parenting, and parents’ ability to effectively advocate for their children in institutional settings like healthcare contexts. Finally, we address directions for future research for scholars interested in the law, family processes and outcomes, and LGBQ families.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. It is important to note that our review highlights only laws that specifically relate to parenthood and sexual orientation. Yet these are not the only laws that impact LGBQ parents. Other laws, including ones relating to immigration, for instance, also affect LGBQ-parent families but are not addressed here (Acosta 2013; Moore and Brainer 2013).

  2. We use the term “LGBQ” to reflect the research reviewed (i.e., some of the studies reviewed include self-identified gay, lesbian, bisexual, and queer individuals in the sample). Due to the dearth of literature on transgender parents and the distinct legal contexts and issues facing transgender parents, our review focuses on LGBQ parents. For work addressing transgender parents and families, including the legal context they face, see for instance: Downing 2013; Pfeffer 2012; Pyne et al. 2015; Ryan 2009; Veldorable-Griffin 2014).

  3. Scholars note a generational shift in how LGBQ people become parents insofar as older generations are more likely to have become parents in the context of a different-sex relationship and/or before coming out, and younger generations are more likely to have become parents in the context of a same-sex relationship and/or after coming out (see Patterson and Riskind 2010 especially pp. 331–334 for more discussion). However, it is important to note that the majority of LGBQ parents in the US likely had their children in the context of different-sex relationships (Gates 2013; Goldberg et al. 2014). The literature that we review focuses almost exclusively on LGBQ parents who had children within the context of a same-sex relationship, a point we return to in the discussion.

  4. Litigation is pending on this issue in Mississippi (Amy 2015).

  5. It is important to note that the law is less likely to have an effect in this regard for LGBQ people who had children prior to coming out and/or in the context of a different sex relationships (Baumle and Compton 2011, p. 107).

  6. Although this research focuses on sexual minority women who become pregnant through insemination either through a clinic or at home, another route to becoming pregnant for sexual minority women includes having sex with a man. There is very limited research on this population. Reed et al. (2011a, b) focus on pregnancy among young Black lesbians. They find that those who planned their pregnancies had sex with men to become pregnant and referred to these men as “sperm donors” (Reed et al. 2011b, p. 754). For more research on adolescent pregnancy among LGBQ individuals, see Saewyc (2014). Although existing literature does not address how these individuals think about the law, this is an area for future research. For a discussion of legal issues in terms for LGBQ women who have sex with men to become pregnant, see Polikoff (2010).

References

  • Acosta, K. L. (2013). Amigas y amantes: Sexually nonconforming Latinas negotiate family. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, K. R. (2007). Ambiguous loss after lesbian couples with children break up: A case for same-gender divorce. Family Relations, 56, 175–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amy, J. (2015). Couples press for end to Mississippi gay adoption ban. The Washington Times. Retrieved from: http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2015/nov/6/couples-press-for-end-to-mississippi-gay-adoption-/.

  • Appell, A. R. (2011). Legal issues in lesbian and gay adoption. In D. Brodzinsky, A. Pertman, & D. Kunz (Eds.), Adoption by lesbians and gay men: A new dimension in family diversity (pp. 36–61). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Barclay, S., Bernstein, M., & Marshall, A. (Eds.). (2009). Queer mobilizations: LGBT activists confront the law. New York, NY: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauermeister, J. A. (2014). How statewide LGB policies go from “under our skin” to “into our hearts”: Fatherhood aspirations and psychological well-being among emerging adult sexual minority men. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(8), 1295–1305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumle, A. K., & Compton, D. R. (2011). Legislating the family: The effect of state family laws on the presence of children in same-sex households. Law and Policy, 33(1), 82–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumle, A. K., & Compton, D. R. (2014). Identity versus identification: How LGBTQ parents identify their children on Census surveys. Journal of Marriage and Family, 76, 94–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bergman, K., Rubio, R. J., Green, R., & Padron, E. (2010). Gay men who become fathers via surrogacy: The transition to parenthood. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 6(2), 111–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bergstrom-Lynch, C. (2012). How children rearrange the closet: Disclosure practices of gay, lesbian, and bisexual prospective parents. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 8, 173–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bergstrom-Lynch, C. (2015). Lesbians, gays, and bisexuals becoming parents or remaining childfree. Washington, DC: Roman and Littlefield.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz, D. (2007). A sociohistorical analysis of gay men’s procreative consciousness. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 3(2–3), 157–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz, D. (2013). Gay men and surrogacy. In A. E. Goldberg & K. R. Allen (Eds.), LGBT-parent families: Innovations in research and implications for practice (pp. 71–85). New York, NY: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz, D., & Marsiglio, W. (2007). Gay men: Negotiating procreative, father, and family identities. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69, 366–381.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein, M., & Reimann, R. (Eds.). (2001). Queer families, queer politics: Challenging culture and the state. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein, M., & Taylor, V. (Eds.). (2013). The marrying kind? Debating same-sex marriage within the gay and lesbian movement. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biblarz, T. J., & Savci, E. (2010). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender families. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 480–497.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boggis, T. (2001). Affording our families: Class issues in family formation. In M. Bernstein & R. Reimann (Eds.), Queer families, queer politics: Challenging culture and the state (pp. 175–182). New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bos, Henny. (2013). Lesbian–mother families formed through donor insemination. In A. E. Goldberg & K. R. Allen (Eds.), LGBT-parent families: Innovations in research and implications for practice (pp. 21–38). New York, NY: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Bozett, F. W. (1989). Gay fathers: A review of the literature. Journal of Homosexuality, 18, 37–159.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, M. (2005). GLBT family policy alert. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 1(4), 79–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, D., Kim, H., & Wind, L. (2011). Supporting gay and lesbian adoptive families before and after adoption: Service need, utilization, and helpfulness. In D. Brodzinsky, A. Pertman, & D. Kunz (Eds.), Adoption by lesbians and gay men: A new dimension in family diversity (pp. 150–183). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Broverman, N. (2015). Alabama high court hands down homophobic adoption ruling. The Advocate. Retrieved from: http://www.advocate.com/families/2015/9/21/alabama-high-court-hands-down-homophobic-adoption-ruling.

  • Brown, S., Smalling, S., Groza, V., & Ryan, S. (2009). The experiences of gay men and lesbians in becoming and being adoptive parents. Adoption Quarterly, 12, 229–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Butterfield, J., & Padavic, I. (2014). The impact of legal inequality on relational power in planned lesbian families. Gender and Society, 28(5), 1–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cahill, S., Battle, J., & Meyer, D. (2003). Partnering, parenting, and policy: Family issues affecting black lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people. Race and Society, 6(2), 85–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carroll, M. (2015). Beyond legal equality for LGBT families. http://contexts.org/blog/beyond-legal-equality-for-lgbt-families/.

  • Chabot, J. M., & Ames, B. D. (2004). It wasn’t ‘let’s get pregnant and go do it’: Decision making in lesbian couples planning motherhood via donor insemination. Family Relations, 53(4), 348–356.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman, R., Wardrop, J., Freeman, P., Zappia, T., Watkins, R., & Shields, L. (2012). A descriptive study of the experiences of lesbian, gay and transgender parents accessing health services for their children. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 21, 1128–1135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connolly, C. (1996). An analysis of judicial opinions in same-sex visitation and adoption cases. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 14, 187–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connolly, C. (1998). The description of gay and lesbian families in second-parent adoption cases. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 16, 225–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connolly, C. (2002). The voice of the petitioner: The experiences of gay and lesbian parents in successful second-parent adoption proceedings. Law and Society Review, 36, 325–346.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Creative Family Connections. (2015). Surrogacy law by state. http://creativefamilyconnections.com/surrogacy-law-by-state/.

  • Dalton, S. (2001). Protecting our parent–child relationships: Understanding the strengths and weaknesses of second-parent adoption. In M. Bernstein & R. Reimann (Eds.), Queer families, queer politics: Challenging culture and the state (pp. 201–220). New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, M. A. (2013). Demographics of gay and lesbian adoption and family practice. International Handbooks of Population, 5, 383–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Downing, J. (2013). Transgender–parent families. In A. Goldberg & K. Allen (Eds.), LGBT-parent families: Innovations in research and implications for practice (pp. 105–115). New York, NY: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Eady, A., Ross, L. E., Epstein, R., & Anderson, S. (2009). To bi or not to bi: Bisexuality and disclosure in the adoption system. In R. Epstein (Ed.), Who’s your daddy? And other writings on queer parenting (pp. 124–132). Toronto, ON: Sumach Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eggert, D. (2015). LGBT adoption just got harder in Michigan. US News and World Report. http://www.usnews.com/news/us/articles/2015/06/11/new-michigan-law-lets-adoption-agencies-decline-referrals.

  • Falk, P. J. (1989). Lesbian mothers psychosocial assumptions in family law. American Psychologist, 44(6), 941–947.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Federle, K. H. (2005). When second-parent adoption is not an option. Adoption Quarterly, 9(1), 79–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gartrell, N., Bos, H., Peyser, H., Deck, A., & Rodas, C. (2011). Family characteristics, custody arrangements, and adolescent psychological well-being after lesbian mothers break up. Family Relations, 60, 572–585.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gartrell, N., Rodas, C., Deck, A., Peyser, H., & Banks, A. (2006). The USA national lesbian family study: Interviews with mothers of 10-year-olds. Feminism and Psychology, 16(2), 175–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gates, G. (2013). LGBT parenting in the United States. Williams Institute. Retrieved from http://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/LGBT-Parenting.pdf.

  • Giambrone, A. (2015). Equality in marriage may not bring equality in adoption. The Atlantic. Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/05/equality-in-marriage-may-not-bring-equality-in-adoption/393806/.

  • Goldberg, A. E., Downing, J. B., & Richardson, H. B. (2009). The transition from infertility to adoption: Perceptions of lesbian and heterosexual preadoptive couples. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 26, 938–963.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, A. E., Gartrell, N. K., & Gates, G. (2014). Research report on LGB-Parent families. Williams Institute. Retrieved from http://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/lgb-parent-families-july-2014.pdf.

  • Goldberg, A. E., & Gianino, M. (2011). Lesbian and gay adoptive parent families: Assessment, clinical issues, and intervention. In D. Brodzinsky & A. Pertman (Eds.), Adoption by lesbians and gay men: A new dimension in family diversity (pp. 204–232). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, A. E., & Kuvalanka, K. A. (2012). Marriage (in)equality: The perspectives of adolescents and emerging adults with lesbian, gay, and bisexual parents. Journal of Marriage and Family, 74, 34–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, A. E., Moyer, A. M., Weber, E. R., & Shapiro, J. (2013). What changed when the gay adoption ban was lifted?: Perspectives of lesbians and gay parents in Florida. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 10(2), 110–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, A. E., & Smith, J. Z. (2011). Stigma, social context, and mental health: Lesbian and gay couples across the transition to adoptive parenthood. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(1), 139–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, J. (2015). When one door opens, another closes: Parentage law after Obergefell v. Hidges. Verdict: Legal analysis and commentary from Justia. Retrieved from: https://verdict.justia.com/2015/09/15/when-one-door-opens-another-closes.

  • Haney-Caron, E., & Heilbrun, K. (2014). Lesbian and gay parents and determination of child custody: The changing legal landscape and implications for policy and practice. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 1(1), 19–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hequembourg, A. (2004). Unscripted motherhood: Lesbian mothers negotiating incompletely institutionalized family relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationship, 21(6), 739–762.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holtzman, M. (2002). The “family relations” doctrine: Extending supreme court precedent to custody disputes between biological and nonbiological parents. Family Relations, 51(4), 335–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holtzman, M. (2006). Definitions of the family as an impetus for legal change in custody decision making: Suggestions from an empirical case study. Law and Social Inquiry, 31(1), 1–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holtzman, M. (2013). GLBT parents’ rights during custody decision making: The influence of doctrine, statute, and societal factors in the United States. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 9(4), 364–392.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hopkins, J., Sorensen, A., & Taylor, V. (2013). Same-sex couples, families, and marriage: Embracing and resisting heteronormativity. Sociology Compass, 7(2), 97–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • IGLA (International lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, and intersex association). 2015. Worldwide legislation: Adoption by individuals. Retrieved from http://ilga.org/.

  • Johnson, K. M. (2012). Excluding lesbian and single women? An analysis of U.S. fertility clinic websites. Women’s Studies International Forum, 35(5), 394–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joslin, C. G., & Minter, S. P. (2011). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender family law. Egan, MN: West.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kazyak, E. (2011). Disrupting cultural selves: Constructing gay and lesbian identities in rural locales. Qualitative Sociology, 34(4), 561–581.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kazyak, E. (2015). ‘The law’s the law, right?’ sexual minority mothers navigating legal inequities and inconsistencies. Sexuality Research and Social Policy. doi:10.1007/s13178-015-0184-y.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kazyak, E., Park, N., McQuillan, J., & Greil, A. L. (2014). Attitudes towards motherhood among sexual minority women in the United States. Journal of Family Issues. doi:10.1177/0192513X14554396.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellas, J. K., & Suter, E. A. (2012). Accounting for lesbian-headed families: Lesbian mothers’ responses to discursive challenges. Communication Monographs, 79(4), 475–498.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kimport, K. (2014). Queering marriage: Challenging family formation in the United States. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinkler, L. A., & Goldberg, A. E. (2011). Working with what we’ve got: Perceptions of barriers and supports among small-metropolitan-area same-sex adopting couples. Family Relations, 60, 387–403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lev, A. I. (2006). Gay dads: Choosing surrogacy. The British Psychological Society Lesbian and Gay Psychology Review, 7(1), 72–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewin, E. (2009). Gay fatherhood: Narratives of family and citizenship in America. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Lubbe, C. (2013). LGBT parents and their children: Non-Western research and perspectives. In A. E. Goldberg & K. R. Allen (Eds.), LGBT-parent families: Innovations in research and implications for practice (pp. 209–221). New York, NY: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ludden, J. (2015). Gay parents face issues with birth certificates in some states. National Public Radio. Retrieved from: http://www.npr.org/2015/09/21/442148968/gay-parents-face-issues-with-birth-certificates-in-some-states.

  • Mallon, G. P. (2004). Gay men choosing parenthood. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malmquist, A. (2015). A crucial but strenuous process: Female same-sex couples’ reflections on second-parent adoption. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 11(4), 351–374.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mamo, L. (2007). Queering reproduction: Achieving pregnancy in the age of technoscience. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Meezan, W., & Rauch, J. (2005). Gay marriage, same-sex parenting, and America’s children. The Future of Children, 15(2), 97–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mezey, N. J. (2008). New choices, new families: How lesbians decide about motherhood. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mezey, S. G. (2009). Gay families and the courts: The quest for equal rights. New York, NY: Rowman and Littlefield.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mezey, N. J. (2013). How lesbian and gay men decide to become parents or remain childfree. In A. E. Goldberg & K. R. Allen (Eds.), LGBT-parent families: Innovations in research and implications for practice (pp. 59–70). New York, NY: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Mezey, N. J. (2015). LGBT families. New York, NY: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, M. R. (2008). Gendered power relations among women: A study of household decision making in stepfamilies. American Sociological Review, 73, 335–358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, M. (2011). Invisible families: Gay identities, relationships and motherhood among Black women. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, M., & Brainer, A. (2013). Race and ethnicity in the lives of sexual minority parents and their children. In A. Goldberg & K. Allen (Eds.), LGBT-parent families: Innovations in research and implications for practice (pp. 133–148). New York, NY: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, M., & Stambolis-Ruhstorfer, M. (2013). LGBT sexuality and families at the start of the twenty-first century. Annual Review of Sociology, 39(1), 491–507.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, J. (2001). Should lesbians count as infertile couples? Antilesbian discrimination in assisted reproduction. In M. Bernstein & R. Reimann (Eds.), Queer families, queer politics: Challenging culture and the state (pp. 182–200). New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Center for Lesbian Rights. (2015). Protecting your family after marriage equality: What you need to know. Retrieved from: http://www.nclrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Protecting-Your-Family-After-Marriage-Equality.pdf.

  • Nejaime, D. (2015). With ruling on marriage equality, fight for gay families is next. LA Times. Retrieved from http://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-nejaime-gay-marriage-decision-does-not-solve-everything-20150628-story.html.

  • Obergefell v. Hodges, 576 U.S. (2015).

  • Oswald, R. F., & Holman, E. G. (2013). Place matters: LGB families in community context. In A. Goldberg & K. Allen (Eds.), LGBT-parent families: Innovations in research and implications for practice (pp. 193–208). New York, NY: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Park, N., Kazyak, E., & Slauson-Blevins, K. (2015). How law shapes experiences of parenthood for same-sex couples. Journal of GLBT Family Studies. doi:10.1080/1550428X.2015.1011818.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, C. J., & Riskind, R. G. (2010). To be a parent: Issues in family formation among gay and lesbian adults. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 6, 326–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pertman, A., & Howard, J. (2011). Emerging diversity in family life: Adoption by gay and lesbian parents. In D. Brodzinsky & A. Pertman (Eds.), Adoption by lesbians and gay men: A new dimension in family diversity (pp. 20–35). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Pfeffer, C. (2012). Normative resistance and inventive pragmatism: Negotiating structure and agency in transgender families. Gender and Society, 26, 574–602.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Polikoff, N. (2010). When lesbians conceive through sexual intercourse, different legal issues arise. Beyond (straight and gay) marriage. Retrieved from: http://beyondstraightandgaymarriage.blogspot.com/2010/12/when-lesbians-conceive-through-sexual.html.

  • Powell, B., Bolzendahl, C., Geist, C., & Steelman, L. C. (2010). Counted out: Same-sex relations and Americans’ definitions of family. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pyne, J., Bauer, G., & Bradley, K. (2015). Transphobia and other stressors impacting trans parents. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 11(1), 107–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramsey, F., Hill, M. J., & Kellam, C. (2010). Black lesbians matter: An examination of the unique experiences, perspectives, and priorities of the black lesbian community. Report. Sacramento, CA: Zuna Institute.

  • Reed, S., Miller, R., & Timm, T. (2011a). Identity and agency: The meaning and value of pregnancy for young black lesbians. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35, 571–581.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reed, S., Miller, R., Valenti, M., & Timm, T. (2011b). Good gay females and babies’ daddies: Black lesbian community norms and the acceptability of pregnancy. Culture, Health, and Sexuality, 13(7), 751–765.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richman, K. D. (2009). Courting change: Queer parents, judges, and the transformation of American family law. New York, NY: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richman, K. D. (2014). License to wed: What legal marriage means to same-sex couples. New York, NY: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riggle, E. D. B., Rostosky, S., Prather, R., & Hamrin, R. (2005). The execution of legal documents by sexual minority individuals. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 11(1), 138–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riskind, R. G., Patterson, C. J., & Nosek, B. A. (2013). Childless lesbian and gay adults’ self-efficacy about achieving parenthood. Couple and Family Psychology: Research and Practice, 2(3), 222–235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosato, J. L. (2006). Children of same-sex parents deserve the security blanket of the parentage presumption. Family Court Review, 44, 74–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross, L. E., & Dobinson, C. (2013). Where is the “b” in LGBT parenting? A call for research on bisexual parenting. In A. Goldberg & K. Allen (Eds.), LGBT-parent families: Innovations in research and implications for practice (pp. 87–104). New York, NY: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Russett, C. (2011). American adoption: A brief history. In D. Brodzinsky & A. Pertman (Eds.), Adoption by lesbians and gay men: A new dimension in family diversity (pp. 3–19). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, M. (2009). Beyond Thomas Beatie: Trans men and the new parenthood. In R. Epstein (Ed.), Who’s your daddy? And other writings on queer parenting (pp. 139–150). Toronto, Canada: Sumach Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, M., & Berkowitz, D. (2009). Constructing gay and lesbian parent families “Beyond the closet”. Qualitative Sociology, 32, 153–172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, S., & Cash, S. (2004). Adoptive families headed by gay or lesbian parents and their adopted children. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 3(2/3), 105–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, S., & Whitlock, C. (2007). Becoming parents: Lesbian mothers’ adoption experience. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, 19, 1–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saewyc, E. M. (2014). Adolescent pregnancy among lesbian, gay, and bisexual teens. In A. L. Cherry & M. E. Dillon (Eds.), International handbook of adolescent pregnancy (pp. 159–169). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, J. (2013). The law governing LGBT-parent families. In A. Goldberg & K. Allen (Eds.), LGBT-parent families: Innovations in research and implications for practice (pp. 291–306). New York, NY: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, D. N., Peterson, C., & Stewart, A. J. (2009). Legal and social contexts and mental health among lesbian and heterosexual mothers. Journal of Family Psychology, 23(2), 255–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheff, E. (2010). Strategies in polyamorous parenting. In M. Barker & D. Langdridge (Eds.), Understanding non-monogamies (pp. 169–181). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shelley-Sirici, L., & Ciano-Boyce, C. (2002). Becoming lesbian adoptive parents: An exploratory study of lesbian adoptive, lesbian birth, and heterosexual adoptive parents. Adoption Quarterly, 6, 33–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shoaf, R. E. (2005). Two mothers and their child: a look at the uncertain status of nonbiological lesbian mothers under contemporary law. William and Mary Journal of Women and the Law, 12(1), 267–295.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, D. (1993). The standard North American family: SNAF as an ideological code. Journal of Family Issues, 14(1), 50–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spivack, C. (2010). The law of surrogate motherhood in the United States. The American Journal of Comparative Law, 58, 97–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stacey, J. (2011). Unhitched: Love, marriage and family values from west hollywood to western China. New York, NY: NYU Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sterett, S. M. (2009). Parents and paperwork: Same-sex parents, birth certificates, and emergent legality. In S. Barclay, M. Bernstein, & A. Marsh (Eds.), Queer mobilizations: LGBT activists confront the law (pp. 103–119). New York, NY: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swift, K. M. (2007). Parenting agreements, the potential power of contract, and the limits of family law. Florida State University Law Review, 34, 913–957.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tasker, F. (2013). Lesbian and gay parenting post-heterosexual divorce and separation. In A. E. Goldberg & K. R. Allen (Eds.), LGBT-parent families: Innovations in research and implications for practice (pp. 3–20). New York, NY: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Tasker, F., & Patterson, C. J. (2007). Lesbian and gay parenting: Retrospect and prospect. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 3, 9–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tornello, S. L., & Patterson, C. L. (2015). Timing of parenthood and experiences of gay fathers: A life course perspective. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 11(1), 35–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vargas, J. H., Miller, M. K., & Chamberlain, J. (2012). The rights and responsibilities of gay social parents and the potential implications for children’s well-being. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 8(5), 465–495.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Veldorable-Griffin, A. (2014). Transgender parents and their adult children’s experiences of disclosure and transition. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 10(5), 475–501.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wall, M. (2011). Hearing the voices of lesbian women having children. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 7(1–2), 93–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watkins, K. A. (2011). Defining legal parenthood: The intersection of gender and sexual identity in U.S. child custody decisions, 2003–2009. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts-Amherst.

  • Wells, G. (2011). Making room for daddies: Male couples creating families through adoption. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 7, 155–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weston, K. (1991). Families we choose: Lesbians, gays, kinship. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the University of Nebraska-Lincoln’s Department of Sociology for its financial support that made this research possible.

Funding

This study was funded by the Department of Sociology at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Sociology and Program in Women’s and Gender Studies, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 725 Oldfather Hall, Lincoln, NE, 68588, USA

    Emily Kazyak

  2. Department of Sociology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 729 Oldfather Hall, Lincoln, NE, 68588, USA

    Brandi Woodell

Authors
  1. Emily Kazyak
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Brandi Woodell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Emily Kazyak.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Kazyak, E., Woodell, B. Law and LGBQ-Parent Families. Sexuality & Culture 20, 749–768 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-016-9335-4

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-016-9335-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation