Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Mapping Populism and Nationalism in Leader Rhetoric Across North America and Europe

  • Published:
Studies in Comparative International Development Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

We conceptualize populism and nationalism as vertical and horizontal discursive frames of sovereignty, and we investigate the prevalence of these frames in the speeches of chief executives (presidents and prime ministers) in Europe and North America to assess whether these discourses are on the rise at the highest levels of government. To do so, we compile an original database of leader speeches, measuring both discourses using a technique called holistic grading. We find that neither populism nor nationalism is on the rise across Europe and North America over the past twenty years; instead, the rise is concentrated in sub-regions and specific countries. We also find that populism and nationalism are highly but imperfectly correlated in leaders’ speeches in the corpus as a whole, but that populism is far less common in the speeches of western leaders. In the penultimate section, we use a selection of speech vignettes to demonstrate that state leaders employ populism to counter political opponents, nationalism to counter hostile nations, and a combination to mobilize against conjoined threats from above and beyond the “people-nation.”

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. We define nationalism as a discourse that holds that the state belongs to the dominant ethnonational group to the exclusion, or at the expense, of non-national others. It further holds that the ethnos or national core of the state must be protected from enemy nations, minorities, immigrants or refugees (see also Billig 1995; Bieber 2018). We define ethnopopulism (short for ethno-nationalist populism) as an even more exclusionary discourse that holds that the state belongs to the dominant ethnopolitical group, excluding both political and non-national “others” (Jenne 2018, 2021). Whereas Madrid (2008) defines ethnopopulism in Bolivia as a combination of potentially inclusionary ethnic and populist appeals (where the ethnic group is not necessarily the dominant ethnonational group), we define it more narrowly as the combination of exclusionary ethnonationalist and populist appeals.

  2. Some have argued for the existence of left-wing nationalist populism, such as the Syriza government in Greece or various governments in Latin America. While we think there are cases that fit this description (Eastwood 2006; Hawkins 2010), in others the rhetoric of political leaders is more notable for its populist than its nationalist elements. When Greek Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras first came to office, for example, his discourse was predominantly populist—aimed against international banks and the anti-democratic structure of the EU; there was little exclusionary nationalism. His platform was broadly inclusionary, calling for integrating and granting citizenship to immigrants in Greece, better treatment of migrants and dismantling refugee detention centers (Jenne 2021, 337–39).

  3. The focus on sovereignty follows a long tradition in the study of both nationalism and populism. Kallis (2018, p. 288) observes that both right- and left-wing populists “use sovereignty…to legitimise the re-concentration of power within the historic territorial contours…of the nation.” Akkerman et al. (2014, p. 1327) likewise notes that in the populist worldview, “the people are viewed not only as sovereign, but also as homogeneous, pure, and virtuous.” Nationalism, too, is a frame that is used to signal “who belongs to the people that enjoy equal rights before the law and in whose name should the state be ruled, now that kings and caliphs have to be replaced by a government ‘representing’ the nation” (Wimmer 2004, p. 43).

  4. For an overview of internal and external dimensions of sovereignty, which map onto popular and national sovereignty, respectively, see Thompson (2006), Reinecke (1997), Brand (1995), and Grimm (2009, pp. 33–45).

  5. Traditionally, scholars have distinguished between more voluntaristic “civic” nations based on a common set of values such as France and the USA versus more ascriptive “ethnic” nations based on the myth of common ancestry (Kohn 1944; Ignatieff 1993). However, as noted by Billig (1995), Shulman (2002) and Bieber (2018a, p. 532), exclusionary nationalist framing—particularly nativist framing against immigrants, migrants or refugees—can occurs in so-called civic and ethnic national contexts, alike. That means that these frames are quite malleable—the political leaders of states with “civic” national identities like the US can also employ (ethno)nationalist and/or ethnopopulist rhetoric.

  6. Ethnopopulist narratives divides the political space both horizontally and vertically, inscribing a small authentic sovereign community that is threatened by enemies from “above” (domestic and foreign “elites,” the EU, UN or the IMF) as well as enemies from “beyond” (migrants, immigrants, ethnic minorities). These threatening “others” are sometimes accused of conspiring to undermine or even de-nationalize the nation-people (Jenne 2018, p. 549; 2021). See similar formulations and extensions of this concept in Vachudova (2020), Jovanovich (2020), Bieber (2018b), Enyedi (2020), Zellman (2019), Hronešová (2021) and Stroschein (2019).

  7. While speeches do not have to be translated, these representative quotes are translated into English by the students.

  8. The training sessions took place in January 2018 at Central European University, Budapest, Hungary; one week was devoted to populism and another to nationalism.

  9. For populism we use the same set that has always been used in this training since Hawkins 2009. It includes speeches by Evo Morales, Sarah Palin, George W. Bush, Stephen Harper, Barack Obama, Robert Mugabe, and Tony Blair. For nationalism, anchor texts included speeches by Geert Wilders, Bernie Sanders, Marco Rubio, Donald Trump, Justin Trudeau, and Nicola Sturgeon. These offer a wide variety of regional and ideological contexts in which to locate the discourses.

  10. For example, we found four speeches given by Viktor Orbán in his first term in office (1998–2002), four in his second term (2010–2014), and four in his third term (2014–2018).

  11. From a technical point of view, our measurements perform well—as usual with applications of holistic grading for populism (Hawkins 2009, 2010; Silva and Hawkins 2018; Hawkins and Rovira Kaltwasser 2017). For populism, Krippendorff’s alpha is 0.84, above the recommended minimum of 0.7. For nationalism, which was measured with this rubric for the first time, Krippendorff’s alpha is 0.76.

  12. Freedom House, Freedom of the Press 2010—Moldova, 1 October 2010, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/4ca5cc5ac.html [accessed 21 August 2019].

  13. Petra Dolata, “A New Canada in the Arctic? Arctic Policies under Harper,” Canadian Studies 78: 131–54, https://www.google.com/url?q=https://journals.openedition.org/eccs/521?lang%3Den%23tocto1n2&sa=D&ust=1566405516809000&usg=AFQjCNG8lo7kp8mZxoyEB1l2D4SyUwjHFw [accessed December 19, 2019].

References

  • Akkerman A, Mudde C, Zaslove A. How populist are the people? Measuring populist attitudes in voters. Comp Political Stud. 2014;47(2):1324–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Althusser L. Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, in Lenin and Philosophy (B. Brewster, Trans). London: Monthly Review Press); 1971:170–186.

  • Anderson B. Imagined communities: reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. London: Verso; 1983, revised edition 2016.

  • Anderson B. Imagined communities. London: Verso; 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aslanidis P. Is populism an ideology? A refutation and a new perspective. Political Stud. 2015;64(1):1–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barth F. Ethnic groups and boundaries: The social organization of cultural difference. Long Grove: Waveland Press; 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Batory A. Populists in government? Hungary’s “system of national cooperation.” Democratization. 2016;23(2):283–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Betz HG. Radical right-wing populism in Western Europe. New York: St. Martin’s Press; 1994.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bieber F. Is Nationalism on the rise? Assessing global trends. Ethnopolitics. 2018a;17(5):519–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bieber F. Ethnopopulism and the Global Dynamics of Nationalist Mobilization. Ethnopolitics. 2018b;17(5):558–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Billig M. Banal nationalism. London; Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blokker P. Populist nationalism, anti-Europeanism, post-nationalism, and the east-west dimension. Ger Law J. 2005;6(2):371–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonikowski B, Halikiopoulou D, Kaufmann E, Rooduijn M. Populism and nationalism in a comparative perspective: a scholarly exchange. Nations and Nationalism. 2018;25(1):58–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brand RA. External sovereignty and international law. Fordham Int Law J. 1995;18:1686–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brubaker R. Nationalism reframed: Nationhood and the national question in the New Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1996.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Brubaker R. Ethnicity without groups. Cambridge: Harvard University Press; 2006.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Brubaker R. Why populism? Theory Soc. 2017;46(5):357–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brubaker R. Populism and nationalism. Nations and Nationalism. 2020;26(1):44–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Canovan M. People, politicians, and populism. Gov Oppos. 1984;19(3):312–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Canovan M. Trust the people! Populism and the two faces of democracy. Political Stud. 1999;47(1):2–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cederman L-E. Blood for soil: The fatal temptations of ethnic politics. Foreign Affairs. 2019;98:61–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Cleen B. Populism and nationalism. In: Kaltwasser C, Espejo P, Taggart P, Ostiguy P, editors. Oxford Handbook of Populism. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2017. p. 342–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Cleen B, Stavrakakis Y. Distinctions and articulations: A discourse theoretical framework for the study of populism and nationalism. Javnost-The Public. 2017;24(4):301–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Cleen B, Stavrakakis Y. How should we analyze the connections between populism and nationalism: A response to Rogers Brubaker. Nations and Nationalism. 2020;26(2):314–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Cleen B, Moffitt B, Panayotu P, Y. Stavrakakis. The potentials and difficulties of transnational populism: The case of the Democracy in Europe Movement 2025 (DIEM25). Political Stud 2019

  • Eastwood J. The rise of nationalism in Venezuela. Gainesville: University Press of Florida; 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eatwell R, Goodwin M. National populism: The revolt against liberal democracy. Penguin UK; 2018.

  • Enyedi Z. Paternalist populism and illiberal elitism in Central Europe. J Political Ideol. 2016;21:9–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Enyedi Z. Right-wing authoritarian innovations in Central and Eastern Europe. East Eur Politics. 2020;36:363–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freeden M. Ideology in political theory: A conceptual approach. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gellner E. Nations and nationalism. Ithaca: Cornell University Press; 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerschewski J. The three pillars of stability: Legitimation, repression, and co-operation in autocratic regimes. Democratization. 2013;20(1):13–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glynos J. Ideological Fantasy at work. Journal of Political Ideologies. 2008;13(3):275–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gómez-Reino M, and Llamazares I. Populism in Spain: the role of ideational change in Podemos. In: The Ideational Approach to Populism: Theory, Method & Analysis, edited by Kirk A. Hawkins, Ryan Carlin, Levente Littvay, and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser. London: Routledge. pp. 294–310.

  • Greenfeld L. Nationalism - Five roads to modernity. Cambridge: Harvard University Press; 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grim D. Sovereignty: The origin and future of a political and legal concept. New York: Columbia University Press; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins KA. Is Chávez populist? Measuring populist discourse in comparative perspective. Comp Political Stud. 2009;42:1040–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins KA. Venezuela’s Chavismo and populism in comparative perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2010.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins K, Littvay L. Contemporary US populism in comparative perspective. Cambridge University Press; 2019.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins KA, Carlin R, Littvay L, Kaltwasser CR. The ideational approach to populism: Concept, theory, and analysis. Extremism and democracy. London: Routledge; 2019a.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins KA, Aguilar R, Castanho Silva B, Jenne EK, Kocijan B, and Rovira Kaltwasser C. Measuring populist discourse: The global populism database. Paper presented at the 2019 EPSA Annual Conference in Belfast, UK, June 20–22, 2019.

  • Hawkins KA, Kaltwasser CR. The ideational approach to populism. Latin American Research Review. 2017;52(4):513–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heiskanen J. The nationalism-populism matrix. Journal of Political Ideologies. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1080/13569317.2020.1825280.

  • Hobsbawm EJ. Nations and nationalism since 1780: Programme, myth, reality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1992.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hronešová J. Ethnopopulist denial and crime relativization in Bosnian Republika Srpska. East European Politics. 2021;1–22.

  • Ignatieff M. Blood and belonging. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux; 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  • Inglehart R, Norris P. Cultural Backlash - Trump, Brexit, and Authoritarian Populism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2019.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ivaldi G, Lanzone ME, Woods D. Varieties of populism across a left-right spectrum: The case of the Front National, the Northern League, Podemos and Five Star Movement. Swiss Political Sci Rev. 2017;23(4):354–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ivarsflaten E. What unites right-wing populists in Western Europe? Re-examining grievance mobilisation models in seven successful cases. Comp Political Stud. 2008;41(1):3–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jansen RS. Populist mobilization: A new theoretical approach to populism. Social Theory. 2011;29(2):75–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jenne EK. Is nationalism or ethnopopulism on the rise today? Ethnopolitics. 2018;17(5):546–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jenne EK. Populism, nationalism and revisionist foreign policy. Int Aff. 2021;97(2):323–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jovanović SM. The portal ‘nationalist’ as the nutshell of recent serbian nationalism: national identities. National Identities. 2020;23(2):149–62.

  • Kallis A. Populism, sovereigntism, and the unlikely re-emergence of the territorial nation-state. Fudan J Human Soc Sci. 2018;11:285–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaltwasser CR, Taggart P. Dealing with populists in government: A framework for analysis. Democratization. 2015;23(2):201–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Katsambekis G. Radical left populism in contemporary Greece: Syriza’s trajectory from minoritarian opposition to power. Constellations. 2016;23(3):391–403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kohn H. The idea of nationalism: A study of its origins and background. New York: MacMillan Company; 1944.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krebs RR. Narrative and the making of US national security. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kriesi H, Pappas TS. European populism in the shadow of the Great Recession. Colchester: ECPR Press; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  • Legro JW. Rethinking the world - Great power strategies and international order. Ithaca: Cornell University Press; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levitsky S, Loxton J. Populism and competitive authoritarianism in the Andes. Democratization. 2013;20(1):107–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madrid R. The rise of ethnopopulism in Latin America. World Politics. 2008;60(3):475–508.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mair P. Populist democracy vs party democracy. In: Mény Y, Surel Y, editors. Democracies and the populist challenge. London: Palgrave Macmillan; 2002. p. 81–98.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Marks G, Hooghe L, Nelson M, Edwards E. Party competition and European integration in the east and west: Different structure, same causality. Comp Political Stud. 2006;39(2):155–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt B. The global rise of populism: Performance, political style, and representation. Stanford: Stanford University Press; 2016.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Mols F. What makes a frame persuasive? Lessons from social identity theory. The Policy Press; 2012. p. 329–45.

  • Mudde C. The populist zeitgeist. Gov Oppos. 2004;39(4):541–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mudde C. Populist radical right parties in Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2007.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Mudde C, Kaltwasser CR. Exclusionary vs inclusionary populism: Comparing contemporary Europe and Latin America. Gov Oppos. 2013;48(2):147–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Müller J-W. What is populism? Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press; 2016.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Mylonas H. The politics of nation-building: Making co-nationals, refugees and minorities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2012.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Oesch D. Explaining workers’ support for right-wing populist parties in Western Europe: Evidence from Austria, Belgium, France, Norway, and Switzerland. Int Political Sci Rev. 2008;29(3):349–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Offe C. Europe entrapped. Cambridge: Polity; 2016.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oktem K, Akkoyunlu K. Exit from democracy: illiberal governance in Turkey and beyond. Southeast European and Black Sea Studies. 2016;16(4):469–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ostiguy P. The high and the low in politics: A two-dimensional political space for comparative analysis and electoral studies. (Working Paper #360) Notre Dame, IN: Kellogg Institute for International Studies; 2009.

  • Pogonyi S. Extra-territorial ethnic politics, discourses and identities in Hungary. Chan: Palgrave Press; 2017.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Reinecke W. Global Public Policy. Foreign Aff. 1997;76(6):129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodrik D. Populism and the economics of globalisation. J Int Business Policy. 2018;1(1–2):12–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rooduijn M. The nucleus of populism: In search of the lowest common denominator. Government and Opposition. 2014;49(4):573–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rooduijn M, Akkerman T. Flank Attacks: Populism and Left-Right Radicalism in Western Europe. Party Polit. 2017;23(3):193–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rooduijn M, Pauwels T. Measuring populism: Comparing two methods of content analysis. West Eur Polit. 2011;34(6):1272–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rupnik J. From democracy fatigue to populist backlash. J Democr. 2007;18(4):17–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saideman S. Inconsistent irredentism? Political competition, ethnic ties, and the foreign policies of Somalia and Serbia. Secur Stud. 1998;7(3):51–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saideman S. The ties that divide: Ethnic politics, foreign policy, and international conflict. New York: Columbia University Press; 2001.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Shulman S. Challenging the civic/ethnic and west/east dichotomies in the study of nationalism. Comp Polit Stud. 2002;35(5):554–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silva B, Hawkins K. Text analysis: Big data approaches. In K. A. Hawkins, R. Carlin, L. Littvay, C. R. Kaltwasser, The ideational approach to populism: Theory, method & analysis. London: Routledge; 2018.

  • Snow DA, Benford RD. Ideology, frame resonance, and participant mobilization. International Social Movement Research. 1988;1(1):197–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snow DA, Benford RD. Master frames and cycles of protest, in Aldon D. Morris and Carol McClurg Mueller, eds, Frontiers in social movement theory. Yale University Press; 1992. pp. 133–55.

  • Snyder J. The broken bargain - How nationalism came back. Foreign Aff. 2019;98(2):54–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanley B. Populism, nationalism, or national populism? An analysis of Slovak voting behavior at the 2010 parliamentary election. Communist and Post-Communist Studies. 2011;44(4):257–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stavrakakis Y, Katsambekis G. Left-wing populism in the European periphery: The case of SYRIZA. J Political Ideol. 2014;19(2):119–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stroschein S. Populism, nationalism, and party politics. Nat Papers. 2019;47(6):923–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Subotić J. Narrative, ontological security, and foreign policy change. Foreign Policy Anal. 2016;12(4):610–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sudweeks R, Reeve S, Bradshaw W. A comparison of generalizability theory and many-facet Rasch Measurement in an analysis of college sophomore writing. Assess Writ. 2004;9(3):239–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taggart P. Populism. Buckingham: Open University Press; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson H. The case for external sovereignty. Eur J Int Relat. 2006;12(2):251–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vachudova M. Ethnopopulism and democratic backsliding in Central Europe. East Eur Politics. 2020;36(3):318–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Volkens A, Krause W, Lehmann P, Matthieß T, Merz N, Regel S, Weßels B. The Manifesto Data Collection. Manifesto Project (MRG/CMP/MARPOR). Berlin: Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung (WZB). https://doi.org/10.25522/manifesto.mpds.2019a; Version 2019a.

  • Waterbury M. Populist nationalism and the challenges of divided nationhood: The politics of migration, mobility, and demography in post-2010 Hungary. East Eur Politics and Societies. 2020;34(4):962–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waever O. Politics, Security, Theory. Secur. Dialogue. 2011;42(4–5):465–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • White E. Teaching and assessing writing. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wimmer A. Dominant ethnicity and dominant nationhood. In: Kaufmann EP, editor. Rethinking Ethnicity: Majority Groups and Dominant Minorities. London: Routledge; 2004. p. 40–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wimmer A. Waves of war: nationalism, state formation, and ethnic exclusion in the modern world. Cambridge University Press; 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wimmer A. Nation-building: Why some countries come together while others fall apart. Princeton: Princeton University Press; 2018.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Zellman A. “Hawking" territorial conflict: Ethnopopulism and nationalist framing strategies. East Eur Politics. 2019;35(4):474–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge the support of the International Themes Initiative (ITI), Central European University (CEU), Comparative Populism project, which funded the expansion of the Global Populism Database and the construction of the Nationalism Populism Database. We received valuable feedback on previous drafts from participants in the SSRC-IFS Future of Political Parties Workshop at the Hertie School in Berlin, May 17–18, 2018; the American Political Science Association Annual Meeting, Washington, DC, August 29–September 1, 2019; and the Comparative Populism Capstone Workshop, CEU, Budapest, June 19–22, 2019. We also benefitted from the advice of our two reviewers.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Central European University, Vienna, Austria

    Erin K. Jenne

  2. Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA

    Kirk A. Hawkins

  3. University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany

    Bruno Castanho Silva

Authors
  1. Erin K. Jenne
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Kirk A. Hawkins
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Bruno Castanho Silva
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Erin K. Jenne.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 22 KB)

Appendix

Appendix

Table 3 Full list of leader terms and scores
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Jenne, E.K., Hawkins, K.A. & Silva, B.C. Mapping Populism and Nationalism in Leader Rhetoric Across North America and Europe. St Comp Int Dev 56, 170–196 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12116-021-09334-9

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12116-021-09334-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation