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Exergy-based optimization constraints for solar PVT panels and district energy systems with onboard green hydrogen production by solar prosumers

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Abstract

This paper highlights the significance of optimizing district energy systems with solar prosumers from an exergy-based perspective to minimize carbon dioxide emission responsibilities. As a case study, the Dezonnet solar district energy project in Haarlem, the Netherlands, which incorporates solar prosumers with traditional rooftop photovoltaic-thermal panels, and heat pumps, integrated with a district heating network featuring a seasonal central thermal storage aquifer, is critically examined. This paper shows that the project has carbon dioxide emission responsibilities that can only be revealed by the Second Law of Thermodynamics. A novel extension of this law relates carbon dioxide emission responsibilities with major exergy destructions. As an alternative solution, a solar/green hydrogen house concept is presented, which encompasses advanced, pumpless photovoltaic-thermal panels with heat pipes, solar flat-plate panels, and thermo-electric generator layers in a sandwiched construction with phase-change thermal storage blocks. On-site seasonal thermal storage systems utilizing phase change material and biogas generation replace the large-scale district aquifer. New optimization constraints as well as the objective function of minimum exergy destruction and corresponding emission responsibility equations are presented. Sample studies indicate that the alternative solution may reduce carbon dioxide emissions responsibility by up to 95%. This paper concludes that smaller districts or individual solar homes with advanced technologies are preferable.

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Abbreviations

A :

Base Area, m2

A s :

The total external surface area of ATES, m2

a :

Coefficient

ALT :

Residence time in the atmosphere (of greenhouse gas)

c :

Constant in Eq. (10)

c, c` :

Nearly-avoidable CO2 emission factors (depending on the order of exergy destruction. If exergy is destroyed upstream, it is 0.63. Otherwise, it is 0.27, kg CO2/kW-hexergy)

c K :

Industry-average unit CO2 emission factor, kg CO2/kW-henergy

c p :

Pressure drop coefficient per district length, L, kPa/m

C p :

Specific heat at constant pressure, kJ/(kg·K)

CO2 :

Direct carbon dioxide emission, kg CO2/kW-henergy

COP :

Coefficient of performance (of a heat pump)

E :

Electrical energy, kW-helectric

E X :

Exergy, kW-hexergy

GWP :

Global warming potential

h :

Height (of ATES), or a constant in Eq. 10, m

I n :

Solar insolation on the solar panel surface, W/m2

k :

Overall thermal conduction coefficient of the insulated tank walls, kW/(m·K)

k i :

Proportionality constant between ΔCO2 and εdes at the (i)th step in a process, kgCO2/kW-hexergy/(kW-hexergy/kW-henergy)

L :

District length, m

LR :

Leakage rate (of the refrigerant), kg/h

L max :

Maximum permissible district length (one way), m

LR :

Refrigerant leakage rate, kg/h

ODI :

Ozone depleting index

ODP :

Ozone depleting potential

P :

Power, kW

P :

Prorating factor

PEF :

Primary energy factor (current average in Europe is 2.5)

Q :

Energy, kW-h

q :

Hourly heat (loss/gain) flux, kW-h/kW-h

R :

Radius, m

R EX :

Exergy-based renewable energy (green) mix ratio

RU :

Roof solar utilization area, m2

R mix :

Mix ratio of renewables in the energy budget

T :

Temperature, K

T f :

Source temperature

T ref :

Reference temperature, K

TSI :

Total solar irradiation, 1367.5 ± 3.5%, W/m2

t :

Time, h

V :

Volume, m3

X :

Side measure or diameter of ATES, m

ε :

Unit exergy, kW/kW or kW-h/kW-h

η, η I :

First-law efficiency

η II :

Second-law efficiency

ρ :

Density, kg/m3

ƩCO 2 :

Compound (Total) CO2 emission, kg CO2/kW-h

η IT :

Transmission-transformation efficiency

η IPM :

Efficiency of the pump and its motor

ψ R :

Rational exergy management efficiency

ΔCO 2 :

Nearly avoidable CO2 emission responsibility, kg CO2/kW-hexergy

ΔT :

Temperature difference, K

p :

Pressure related

B :

Boiler

dem :

Demand

des :

Destroyed

E :

Exit/entrance from/to useful work, or electric, useful energy, or electrolysis

EX :

Exergy

f :

Fuel, energy source

FC :

Fuel cell

g :

Ground (temperature)

H :

Heat

HE :

Heat exchanger

i :

Inlet

m :

Mean, average

PM :

Pump and its motor

R :

Renewable

ref :

Reference environment (temperature)

solar :

Solar

Sup :

Supply (unit exergy)

T :

Transmission (power)

wt :

Wind turbine

1,2 :

Supply and return (or vice versa)

ADS :

Adsorption chiller

ASHRAE :

American Society of Heating, Ventilating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.

ATES :

Aquifer Thermal Energy Storage System

BG :

Biogas

CHP :

Combined heat and power

DC :

Direct current

DH :

Dehumidification (desiccant type)

DHW :

Domestic hot water

EU :

European Union

F/C :

Fan coil with heat pipes

FC :

Fuel cell

FPC :

Flat-plate solar collector

HFC :

Chlorofluorocarbon

HVAC :

Heating ventilating and air conditioning

HP :

Heat pump

ID :

Internal pipe diameter, m

IAQ :

Indoor air quality

IEA :

International Energy Agency

LT :

Low temperature

NG :

Natural gas

ORC :

Organic Rankine Cycle

ppm :

Parts per million

PV :

Solar photo-voltaic (cell or panel)

PVT :

Solar photo-voltaic-thermal

PVT1 :

Commercial solar PVT

PVT3 :

Advanced solar PVT (third generation)

RHC-ETIP :

European Technology (and Innovation) Platforms & JTIs on Renewable Heating and Cooling

TES :

Thermal energy storage

TEG :

Thermo-electric generator

TRNSYS :

Transient Systems simulation program

WHO :

World Health Organization

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Mechanical Engineering, OSTİM Technical University, OSTİM, Ankara, 06374, Turkey

    Demiral Akbar & Birol Kilkiş

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  1. Demiral Akbar
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  2. Birol Kilkiş
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Correspondence to Demiral Akbar.

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Akbar, D., Kilkiş, B. Exergy-based optimization constraints for solar PVT panels and district energy systems with onboard green hydrogen production by solar prosumers. Energy Efficiency 17, 6 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12053-023-10184-8

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