Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are the immune system’s highly specialized antigen-presenting cells. When DCs are sluggish and mature, self-antigen presentation results in tolerance; however, when pathogen-associated molecular patterns stimulate mature DCs, antigen presentation results in the development of antigen-specific immunity. DCs have been identified in various vital organs of mammals (e.g., the skin, heart, lungs, intestines, and spleen), but the brain has long been thought to be devoid of DCs in the absence of neuroinflammation. However, neuroinflammation is becoming more recognized as a factor in a variety of brain illnesses. DCs are present in the brain parenchyma in trace amounts under healthy circumstances, but their numbers rise during neuroinflammation. New therapeutics are being developed that can reduce dendritic cell immunogenicity by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokine production and T cell co-stimulatory pathways. Additionally, innovative ways of regulating dendritic cell growth and differentiation and harnessing their tolerogenic capability are being explored. Herein, we described the function of dendritic cells in neurological disorders and discussed the potential for future therapeutic techniques that target dendritic cells and dendritic cell–related targets in the treatment of neurological disorders.
Graphical abstract
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of Data and Materials
All data that belongs to this work is given herein.
Not applicable.
References
De Laere M, Berneman ZN, Cools N (2018) To the brain and back: migratory paths of dendritic cells in multiple sclerosis. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 77(3):178–192
Broekaart DW, Anink JJ, Baayen JC, Idema S, de Vries HE, Aronica E, … van Vliet EA (2018) Activation of the innate immune system is evident throughout epileptogenesis and is associated with blood-brain barrier dysfunction and seizure progression. Epilepsia 59(10):1931–1944
Mohammad MG, Tsai VW, Ruitenberg MJ, Hassanpour M, Li H, Hart PH, … Brown DA (2014) Immune cell trafficking from the brain maintains CNS immune tolerance. J Clin Investig 124(3):1228–1241
Huhn K, Engelhorn T, Linker RA, Nagel AM (2019) Potential of sodium MRI as a biomarker for neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation in multiple sclerosis. Front Neurol 10:84
Clarkson BD, Walker A, Harris M, Rayasam A, Sandor M, Fabry Z (2014) Mapping the accumulation of co-infiltrating CNS dendritic cells and encephalitogenic T cells during EAE. J Neuroimmunol 277(1–2):39–49
Masuda H, Mori M, Uchida T, Uzawa A, Ohtani R, Kuwabara S (2017) Soluble CD40 ligand contributes to blood–brain barrier breakdown and central nervous system inflammation in multiple sclerosis and neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder. J Neuroimmunol 305:102–107
Cook SJ, Lee Q, Wong AC, Spann BC, Vincent JN, Wong JJ, … Roediger B (2018) Differential chemokine receptor expression and usage by pre-cDC 1 and pre-cDC 2. Immunol Cell Biol 96(10):1131–1139
Collin M, Bigley V (2018) Human dendritic cell subsets: an update. Immunology 154(1):3–20
Kabashima K, Shiraishi N, Sugita K, Mori T, Onoue A, Kobayashi M, … Tokura Y (2007) CXCL12-CXCR4 engagement is required for migration of cutaneous dendritic cells. Am J Pathol 171(4):1249–1257
Chen K, Bao Z, Tang P, Gong W, Yoshimura T, Wang JM (2018) Chemokines in homeostasis and diseases. Cell Mol Immunol 15(4):324–334
Bernardo D, Durant L, Mann ER, Bassity E, Montalvillo E, Man R, … Knight SC (2016) Chemokine (CC motif) receptor 2 mediates dendritic cell recruitment to the human colon but is not responsible for differences observed in dendritic cell subsets, phenotype, and function between the proximal and distal colon. Cell Mol Gastroenterol Hepatol 2(1):22–39
Curato C, Bernshtein B, Zupancič E, Dufner A, Jaitin D, Giladi A, … Jung S (2019) DC respond to cognate T cell interaction in the antigen-challenged lymph node. Front Immunol 10:863
Penna G, Sozzani S, Adorini L (2001) Cutting edge: selective usage of chemokine receptors by plasmacytoid dendritic cells. J Immunol 167(4):1862–1866
Collin M, McGovern N, Haniffa M (2013) Human dendritic cell subsets. Immunology 140(1):22–30
Chistiakov DA, Sobenin IA, Orekhov AN, Bobryshev YV (2015) Myeloid dendritic cells: development, functions, and role in atherosclerotic inflammation. Immunobiology 220(6):833–844
Zabel BA, Silverio AM, Butcher EC (2005) Chemokine-like receptor 1 expression and chemerin-directed chemotaxis distinguish plasmacytoid from myeloid dendritic cells in human blood. J Immunol 174(1):244–251
Zabel BA, Allen SJ, Kulig P, Allen JA, Cichy J, Handel TM, Butcher EC (2005) Chemerin activation by serine proteases of the coagulation, fibrinolytic, and inflammatory cascades. J Biol Chem 280(41):34661–34666
de la Rosa G, Longo N, Rodríguez-Fernández JL, Puig-Kroger A, Pineda A, Corbí ÁL, Sánchez-Mateos P (2003) Migration of human blood dendritic cells across endothelial cell monolayers: adhesion molecules and chemokines involved in subset-specific transmigration. J Leukoc Biol 73(5):639–649
Zozulya AL, Ortler S, Lee J, Weidenfeller C, Sandor M, Wiendl H, Fabry Z (2009) Intracerebral dendritic cells critically modulate encephalitogenic versus regulatory immune responses in the CNS. J Neurosci 29(1):140–152
Sagar D, Lamontagne A, Foss CA, Khan ZK, Pomper MG, Jain P (2012) Dendritic cell CNS recruitment correlates with disease severity in EAE via CCL2 chemotaxis at the blood–brain barrier through paracellular transmigration and ERK activation. J Neuroinflamm 9(1):1–15
Greter M, Heppner FL, Lemos MP, Odermatt BM, Goebels N, Laufer T, … Becher B (2005) Dendritic cells permit immune invasion of the CNS during experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Nat Med 11:328–334
Wagner CA, Roqué PJ, Mileur TR, Liggitt D, Goverman JM (2020) Myelin-specific CD8+ T cells exacerbate brain inflammation in CNS autoimmunity. J Clin Investig 130(1):203–213
González-Guevara E, Cárdenas G, Pérez-Severiano F, Martínez-Lazcano JC (2020) Dysregulated brain cholesterol metabolism is linked to neuroinflammation in Huntington’s disease. Mov Disord 35(7):1113–1127
D’Agostino PM, Gottfried-Blackmore A, Anandasabapathy N, Bulloch K (2012) Brain dendritic cells: biology and pathology. Acta Neuropathol 124(5):599–614
Iijima N, Mattei LM, Iwasaki A (2011) Recruited inflammatory monocytes stimulate antiviral Th1 immunity in infected tissue. Proc Natl Acad Sci 108(1):284–289
Ji Q, Castelli L, Goverman JM (2013) MHC class I–restricted myelin epitopes are cross-presented by Tip-DCs that promote determinant spreading to CD8+ T cells. Nat Immunol 14(3):254–261
Segura E, Valladeau-Guilemond J, Donnadieu MH, Sastre-Garau X, Soumelis V, Amigorena S (2012) Characterization of resident and migratory dendritic cells in human lymph nodes. J Exp Med 209(4):653–660
Kettenmann H, Hanisch UK, Noda M, Verkhratsky A (2011) Physiology of microglia. Physiol Rev 91(2):461–553
Prodinger C, Bunse J, Krüger M, Schiefenhövel F, Brandt C, Laman JD, … Bechmann I (2011) CD11c-expressing cells reside in the juxtavascular parenchyma and extend processes into the glia limitans of the mouse nervous system. Acta Neuropathol 121(4):445–458
Lee E, Eo JC, Lee C, Yu JW (2021) Distinct features of brain-resident macrophages: microglia and non-parenchymal brain macrophages. Mol Cells 44(5):281–291
Hatterer E, Touret M, Belin MF, Honnorat J, Nataf S (2008) Cerebrospinal fluid dendritic cells infiltrate the brain parenchyma and target the cervical lymph nodes under neuroinflammatory conditions. PloS one 3(10):e3321
Colton CA (2013) Immune heterogeneity in neuroinflammation: dendritic cells in the brain. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 8(1):145–162
Lambotin M, Raghuraman S, Stoll-Keller F, Baumert TF, Barth H (2010) A look behind closed doors: interaction of persistent viruses with dendritic cells. Nat Rev Microbiol 8(5):350–360
Kalincik T (2015) Multiple sclerosis relapses: epidemiology, outcomes and management. A systematic review. Neuroepidemiology 44(4):199–214
Williams GP, Marmion DJ, Schonhoff AM, Jurkuvenaite A, Won WJ, Standaert DG, … Harms AS (2020) T cell infiltration in both human multiple system atrophy and a novel mouse model of the disease. Acta Neuropathol 139(5):855–874
Bando Y (2020) Mechanism of demyelination and remyelination in multiple sclerosis. Clin Exp Neuroimmunol 11:14–21
Basak J, Majsterek I (2021) MiRNA-dependent CD4+ T cell differentiation in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. Multiple Sclerosis Int 2021
Fransen NL, Hsiao CC, van der Poel M, Engelenburg HJ, Verdaasdonk K, Vincenten MC, … Huitinga I (2020) Tissue-resident memory T cells invade the brain parenchyma in multiple sclerosis white matter lesions. Brain 143(6):1714–1730
Srivastava, N., Bishnoi, A., Parsad, D., Kumaran, M. S., Vinay, K., & Gupta, S. (2021). Dendritic cells sub-sets are associated with inflammatory cytokine production in progressive vitiligo disease. Archives of Dermatological Research, 1–9.
van Wageningen, T. A., Gerrits, E., Geleijnse, A., Brouwer, N., Geurts, J. J., Eggen, B. J., ... & van Dam, A. M. (2020). Distinct gene expression profiles in leukocortical demyelinated white and grey matter areas of multiple sclerosis patients. bioRxiv.
Patsopoulos NA, De Jager PL (2020) Genetic and gene expression signatures in multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler J 26(5):576–581
Enz, L. S., Zeis, T., Schmid, D., Geier, F., van der Meer, F., Steiner, G., ... & Schaeren-Wiemers, N. (2020). Increased HLA-DR expression and cortical demyelination in MS links with HLA-DR15. Neurology-Neuroimmunology Neuroinflammation, 7(2).
Pavelek, Z., Angelucci, F., Souček, O., Krejsek, J., Sobíšek, L., Klímová, B., ... & Vališ, M. (2020). Innate immune system and multiple sclerosis. Granulocyte numbers are reduced in patients affected by relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis during the remission phase. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 9(5), 1468.
Cilingir V, Batur M (2020) Axonal degeneration independent of inflammatory activity: is it more intense in the early stages of relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis disease? Eur Neurol 83(4):442–450
Jazayeri MH, Nedaeinia R, Aghaie T, Motallebnezhad M (2020) Human placental extract attenuates neurological symptoms in the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis model of multiple sclerosis-a putative approach in MS disease? Autoimmunity Highlights 11(1):1–9
Rouhi F, Mohammadpour Z, Noureini SK, Abbastabar H, Harirchian MH, Bitarafan S (2020) The effects and side effects of laquinimod for the treatment of multiple sclerosis patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 76(5):611–622
Engel, S., Jolivel, V., Kraus, S. H. P., Zayoud, M., Rosenfeld, K., Tumani, H., ... & Luessi, F. (2021). Laquinimod dampens IL-1β signaling and Th17-polarizing capacity of monocytes in patients with MS. Neurology-Neuroimmunology Neuroinflammation, 8(1).
Giovannoni G, Knappertz V, Steinerman JR, Tansy AP, Li T, Krieger S, … Barkhof F (2020) A randomized, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial of laquinimod in primary progressive multiple sclerosis. Neurology 95(8):e1027–e1040
Karampoor S, Zahednasab H, Amini R, Esghaei M, Sholeh M, Keyvani H (2020) Maraviroc attenuates the pathogenesis of experimental autoimmune encephalitis. Int Immunopharmacol 80:106138
Yang P, Tian H, Zou YR, Chambon P, Ichinose H, Honig G, ... Kim SJ (2021) Epinephrine production in Th17 cells and experimental autoimmune encephalitis. Front Immunol 12
Yang L, Han X, Yuan J, Xing F, Hu Z, Huang F, … Wu X (2020) Early astragaloside IV administration attenuates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in mice by suppressing the maturation and function of dendritic cells. Life sciences 249
Luu T, Cheung JF, Baccon J, Waldner H (2021) Priming of myelin-specific T cells in the absence of dendritic cells results in accelerated development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. PloS one 16(4):e0250340
Letscher H, Agbogan VA, Korniotis S, Gastineau P, Tejerina E, Gras C, … Zavala F (2021) Toll-like receptor-9 stimulated plasmacytoid dendritic cell precursors suppress autoimmune neuroinflammation in a murine model of multiple sclerosis. Sci Rep 11(1):1–17
Castenmiller C, Keumatio-Doungtsop BC, van Ree R, de Jong EC, van Kooyk Y (2021) Tolerogenic immunotherapy: targeting DC surface receptors to induce antigen-specific tolerance. Front Immunol 12:422
McIntyre LL, Greilach SA, Othy S, Sears-Kraxberger I, Wi B, Ayala-Angulo J, … Walsh CM (2020) Regulatory T cells promote remyelination in the murine experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis model of multiple sclerosis following human neural stem cell transplant. Neurobiol Dis 140:104868
Stinear CM, Lang CE, Zeiler S, Byblow WD (2020) Advances and challenges in stroke rehabilitation. The Lancet Neurology 19(4):348–360
Essig F, Kollikowski AM, Müllges W, Stoll G, Haeusler KG, Schuhmann MK, Pham M (2021) Local cerebral recombinant tissue plasminogen activator concentrations during acute stroke. JAMA Neurol
Boese AC, Eckert A, Hamblin MH, Lee JP (2020) Human neural stem cells improve early stage stroke outcome in delayed tissue plasminogen activator-treated aged stroke brains. Exp Neurol 329:113275
Xue Y, Nie D, Wang LJ, Qiu HC, Ma L, Dong MX, … Zhao J (2021) Microglial polarization: novel therapeutic strategy against ischemic stroke. Aging Dis 12(2):466
Miró-Mur F, Urra X, Ruiz-Jaén F, Pedragosa J, Chamorro Á, Planas AM (2020) Antigen-dependent T cell response to neural peptides after human ischemic stroke. Front Cell Neurosci 14:206
Guilliams M, Ginhoux F, Jakubzick C, Naik SH, Onai N, Schraml BU, … Yona S (2014) Dendritic cells, monocytes and macrophages: a unified nomenclature based on ontogeny. Nat Rev Immunol 14(8):571–578
Gelderblom M, Gallizioli M, Ludewig P, Thom V, Arunachalam P, Rissiek B, … Magnus T (2018) IL-23 (interleukin-23)–producing conventional dendritic cells control the detrimental IL-17 (interleukin-17) response in stroke. Stroke 49(1):155–164
Yilmaz A, Fuchs T, Dietel B, Altendorf R, Cicha I, Stumpf C, … Kollmar R (2010) Transient decrease in circulating dendritic cell precursors after acute stroke: potential recruitment into the brain. Clin Sci 118(2):147–157
Filippini G (2012) Epidemiology of primary central nervous system tumors. Handb Clin Neurol 104:3–22
Northcott PA, Pfister SM, Jones DT (2015) Next-generation (epi) genetic drivers of childhood brain tumours and the outlook for targeted therapies. Lancet Oncol 16(6):e293–e302
Dhodapkar MV, Dhodapkar KM, Palucka AK (2008) Interactions of tumor cells with dendritic cells: balancing immunity and tolerance. Cell Death Differ 15(1):39–50
Imperato JN, Xu D, Romagnoli PA, Qiu Z, Perez P, Khairallah C, … Sheridan BS (2020) Mucosal CD8 T cell responses are shaped by Batf3-DC after foodborne Listeria monocytogenes infection. Front Immunol 11:2306
Demoulin S, Herfs M, Delvenne P, Hubert P (2013) Tumor microenvironment converts plasmacytoid dendritic cells into immunosuppressive/tolerogenic cells: insight into the molecular mechanisms. J Leukoc Biol 93(3):343–352
Guéry L, Dubrot J, Lippens C, Brighouse D, Malinge P, Irla M, … Hugues S (2014) Ag-presenting CpG-activated pDCs prime Th17 cells that induce tumor regression. Can Res 74(22):6430–6440
Wang R, Zhang JL, Wei B, Tian Y, Li ZH, Wang L, Du C (2014) Upregulation of plasmacytoid dendritic cells in glioma. Tumor Biology 35(10):9661–9666
McEwen BS, Bulloch K (2019) Epigenetic impact of the social and physical environment on brain and body. Metabolism 100:153941
Ludewig P, Gallizioli M, Urra X, Behr S, Brait VH, Gelderblom M, ...Planas AM (2016) Dendritic cells in brain diseases. Biochim Biophys Acta (BBA) Mol Basis Dis 1862(3):352–367
Roth P, Eisele G, Weller M (2012) Immunology of brain tumors. Handb Clin Neurol 104:45–51
Akasaki Y, Liu G, Chung NH, Ehtesham M, Black KL, John SY (2004) Induction of a CD4+ T regulatory type 1 response by cyclooxygenase-2-overexpressing glioma. J Immunol 173(7):4352–4359
Espuny-Camacho I, Arranz AM, Fiers M, Snellinx A, Ando K, Munck S, … De Strooper B (2017) Hallmarks of Alzheimer’s disease in stem-cell-derived human neurons transplanted into mouse brain. Neuron 93(5):1066–1081
Eimer WA, Kumar DKV, Shanmugam NKN, Rodriguez AS, Mitchell T, Washicosky KJ, … Moir RD (2018) Alzheimer’s disease-associated β-amyloid is rapidly seeded by herpesviridae to protect against brain infection. Neuron 99(1):56–63
Sundaram JR, Poore CP, Sulaimee NHB, Pareek T, Cheong WF, Wenk MR, … Kesavapany S (2017) Curcumin ameliorates neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, and memory deficits in p25 transgenic mouse model that bears hallmarks of Alzheimer’s disease. J Alzheimers Dis 60(4):1429–1442
Amor S, Woodroofe MN (2014) Innate and adaptive immune responses in neurodegeneration and repair. Immunology 141(3):287–291
Gil-Pulido J, Zernecke A (2017) Antigen-presenting dendritic cells in atherosclerosis. Eur J Pharmacol 816:25–31
Li H, Zhu X, Hu L, Li Q, Ma J, Yan J (2019) Loss of exosomal MALAT1 from ox-LDL-treated vascular endothelial cells induces maturation of dendritic cells in atherosclerosis development. Cell Cycle 18(18):2255–2267
Greenwood J, Heasman SJ, Alvarez JI, Prat A, Lyck R, Engelhardt B (2011) Leucocyte–endothelial cell crosstalk at the blood–brain barrier: a prerequisite for successful immune cell entry to the brain. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 37(1):24–39
Preston JE (2001) Ageing choroid plexus-cerebrospinal fluid system. Microsc Res Tech 52(1):31–37
Farrall AJ, Wardlaw JM (2009) Blood–brain barrier: ageing and microvascular disease–systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurobiol Aging 30(3):337–352
Hohsfield LA, Humpel C (2015) Migration of blood cells to β-amyloid plaques in Alzheimer’s disease. Exp Gerontol 65:8–15
Perry VH, Newman TA, Cunningham C (2003) The impact of systemic infection on the progression of neurodegenerative disease. Nat Rev Neurosci 4(2):103–112
Ciaramella A, Bizzoni F, Salani F, Vanni D, Spalletta G, Sanarico N, … Bossù P (2010) Increased pro-inflammatory response by dendritic cells from patients with Alzheimer’s disease. J Alzheimers Dis 19(2):559–572
Ciaramella A, Sanarico N, Bizzoni F, Moro ML, Salani F, Scapigliati G, … Bossu P (2009) Amyloid β peptide promotes differentiation of pro-inflammatory human myeloid dendritic cells. Neurobiol Aging 30(2):210–221
Olson M, Lockhart TE, Lieberman A (2019) Motor learning deficits in Parkinson’s disease (PD) and their effect on training response in gait and balance: a narrative review. Front Neurol 10:62
McGeer PL, McGeer EG (2004) Inflammation and neurodegeneration in Parkinson’s disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 10:S3–S7
Ren M, Guo Y, Wei X, Yan S, Qin Y, Zhang X, … Lou H (2018) TREM2 overexpression attenuates neuroinflammation and protects dopaminergic neurons in experimental models of Parkinson’s disease. Exp Neurol 302:205–213
Dardiotis E, Rikos D, Siokas V, Aloizou AM, Tsouris Z, Sakalakis E, … Hadjigeorgiou GM (2020) Assessment of TREM2 rs75932628 variant’s association with Parkinson’s disease in a Greek population and Meta-analysis of current data. Int J Neurosci 1–5
O’Donovan SM, Crowley EK, Brown JRM, O’Sullivan O, O’Leary OF, … Timmons S, O’Neill C (2020) Nigral overexpression of α-synuclein in a rat Parkinson’s disease model indicates alterations in the enteric nervous system and the gut microbiome. Neurogastroenterol Motil 32(1):e13726
Faustini G, Longhena F, Varanita T, Bubacco L, Pizzi M, Missale C, … Bellucci A (2018) Synapsin III deficiency hampers α-synuclein aggregation, striatal synaptic damage and nigral cell loss in an AAV-based mouse model of Parkinson’s disease. Acta Neuropathol 136(4):621–639
George S, Rey NL, Tyson T, Esquibel C, Meyerdirk L, Schulz E, … Brundin P (2019) Microglia affect α-synuclein cell-to-cell transfer in a mouse model of Parkinson’s disease. Mol Neurodegener 14(1):1–22
Ciaramella A, Salani F, Bizzoni F, Pontieri FE, Stefani A, Pierantozzi M, … Bossu P (2013) Blood dendritic cell frequency declines in idiopathic Parkinson’s disease and is associated with motor symptom severity. PLoS One 8(6):e65352
Schutt CR, Gendelman HE, Mosley RL (2018) Tolerogenic bone marrow-derived dendritic cells induce neuroprotective regulatory T cells in a model of Parkinson’s disease. Mol Neurodegener 13(1):1–17
Yanamandra K, Gruden MA, Casaite V, Meskys R, Forsgren L, Morozova-Roche LA (2011) α-Synuclein reactive antibodies as diagnostic biomarkers in blood sera of Parkinson’s disease patients. PloS one 6(4):e18513
Double KL, Rowe DB, Carew-Jones FM, Hayes M, Chan DKY, Blackie J, … Halliday GM (2009) Anti-melanin antibodies are increased in sera in Parkinson’s disease. Exp Neurol 217(2):297–301
Zappia M, Crescibene L, Bosco D, Arabia G, Nicoletti G, Bagala A, … Quattrone A (2002) Anti-GM1 ganglioside antibodies in Parkinson’s disease. Acta Neurol Scand 106(1):54–57
Chen S, Le WD, Xie WJ, Alexianu ME, Engelhardt JI, Siklós L, Appel SH (1998) Experimental destruction of substantia nigra initiated by Parkinson disease immunoglobulins. Arch Neurol 55(8):1075–1080
Jiang T, Li G, Xu J, Gao S, Chen X (2018) The challenge of the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease: is autoimmunity the culprit? Front Immunol 9:2047
Campolo M, Filippone A, Biondo C, Mancuso G, Casili G, Lanza M, … Paterniti I (2020) TLR7/8 in the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease. Int J Mol Sci 21(24):9384
Vezzani A (2014) Epilepsy and inflammation in the brain: overview and pathophysiology: epilepsy and inflammation in the brain. Epilepsy Curr 14(2_suppl):3–7
Librizzi L, Regondi MC, Pastori C, Frigerio S, Frassoni C, De Curtis M (2007) Expression of adhesion factors induced by epileptiform activity in the endothelium of the isolated guinea pig brain in vitro. Epilepsia 48(4):743–751
Vezzani A (2015) Anti-inflammatory drugs in epilepsy: does it impact epileptogenesis? Expert Opin Drug Saf 14(4):583–592
Li XW, Yang F, Wang YG, Wang JC, Ma L, Jiang W (2013) Brain recruitment of dendritic cells following Li-pilocarpine induced status epilepticus in adult rats. Brain Res Bull 91:8–13
Bulloch K, Miller MM, Gal-Toth J, Milner TA, Gottfried-Blackmore A, Waters EM, … McEwen BS (2008) CD11c/EYFP transgene illuminates a discrete network of dendritic cells within the embryonic, neonatal, adult, and injured mouse brain. J Comp Neurol 508(5):687–710
Iyer A, Zurolo E, Spliet WG, Van Rijen PC, Baayen JC, Gorter JA, Aronica E (2010) Evaluation of the innate and adaptive immunity in type I and type II focal cortical dysplasias. Epilepsia 51(9):1763–1773
Boer K, Troost D, Jansen F, Nellist M, Van Den Ouweland AM, Geurts JJ, … Aronica E (2008) Clinicopathological and immunohistochemical findings in an autopsy case of tuberous sclerosis complex. Neuropathology 28(6):577–590
Becker AJ, Blümcke I, Urbach H, Hans V, Majores M (2006) Molecular neuropathology of epilepsy-associated glioneuronal malformations. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 65(2):99–108
Sathaliyawala T, O’Gorman WE, Greter M, Bogunovic M, Konjufca V, Hou ZE, … Reizis B (2010) Mammalian target of rapamycin controls dendritic cell development downstream of Flt3 ligand signaling. Immunity 33(4):597–606
Comabella M, Montalban X, Münz C, Lünemann JD (2010) Targeting dendritic cells to treat multiple sclerosis. Nat Rev Neurol 6(9):499–507
Dinarello CA (2009) Immunological and inflammatory functions of the interleukin-1 family. Annu Rev Immunol 27:519–550
Veenbergen S, Li P, Raatgeep HC, Lindenbergh-Kortleve DJ, Simons-Oosterhuis Y, Farrel A, … Samsom JN (2019) IL-10 signaling in dendritic cells controls IL-1β-mediated IFNγ secretion by human CD4+ T cells: relevance to inflammatory bowel disease. Mucosal Immunol 12(5):1201–1211
Cavalli G, Dinarello CA (2018) Anakinra therapy for non-cancer inflammatory diseases. Front Pharmacol 9:1157
Heink S, Yogev N, Garbers C, Herwerth M, Aly L, Gasperi C, … Korn T (2017) Trans-presentation of IL-6 by dendritic cells is required for the priming of pathogenic TH 17 cells. Nat Immunol 18(1):74–85
Fu Y, Zhan X, Wang Y, Jiang X, Liu M, Yang Y, Huang Y et al (2019) NLRC 3 expression in dendritic cells attenuates CD 4+ T cell response and autoimmunity. EMBO J 38(16):e101397
Smolen JS, Beaulieu A, Rubbert-Roth A, Ramos-Remus C, Rovensky J, Alecock E, OPTION Investigators (2008) Effect of interleukin-6 receptor inhibition with tocilizumab in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (OPTION study): a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomised trial. Lancet 371(9617):987–997
Li Y, Chu N, Hu A, Gran B, Rostami A, Zhang GX (2007) Increased IL-23p19 expression in multiple sclerosis lesions and its induction in microglia. Brain 130(2):490–501
Nichols JM, Kummari E, Sherman J, Yang EJ, Dhital S, Gilfeather C, … Kaplan BL (2021) CBD suppression of EAE is correlated with early inhibition of splenic IFN-γ+ CD8+ T cells and modest inhibition of neuroinflammation. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 16:346–362
Segal BM, Constantinescu CS, Raychaudhuri A, Kim L, Fidelus-Gort R, Kasper LH, Investigators UMS (2008) Repeated subcutaneous injections of IL12/23 p40 neutralising antibody, ustekinumab, in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: a phase II, double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomised, dose-ranging study. Lancet Neurol 7(9):796–804
Lukic A, Larssen P, Fauland A, Samuelsson B, Wheelock CE, Gabrielsson S, Radmark O (2017) GM-CSF–and M-CSF–primed macrophages present similar resolving but distinct inflammatory lipid mediator signatures. FASEB J 31(10):4370–4381
Lotfi N, Thome R, Rezaei N, Zhang GX, Rezaei A, Rostami A, Esmaeil N (2019) Roles of GM-CSF in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases: an update. Front Immunol 10:1265
Liu H, Qiu F, Wang Y, Zeng Q, Liu C, Chen Y, … Dai Z (2019) CD8+ CD122+ PD-1+ Tregs synergize with costimulatory blockade of CD40/cd154, but not B7/CD28, to prolong murine allograft survival. Front Immunol 10:306
Song K, Xu L, Zhang W, Cai Y, Jang B, Oh J, Jin JO (2017) Laminarin promotes anti-cancer immunity by the maturation of dendritic cells. Oncotarget 8(24):38554
Qian C, Cao X (2018) Dendritic cells in the regulation of immunity and inflammation. In: Seminars in immunology, vol. 35. Academic Press, pp 3–11
Yanuck SF (2019) Microglial phagocytosis of neurons: diminishing neuronal loss in traumatic, infectious, inflammatory, and autoimmune CNS disorders. Front Psych 10:712
Serra P, Santamaria P (2019) Antigen-specific therapeutic approaches for autoimmunity. Nat Biotechnol 37(3):238–251
Warren KG, Catz I, Ferenczi LZ, Krantz MJ (2006) Intravenous synthetic peptide MBP8298 delayed disease progression in an HLA class II-defined cohort of patients with progressive multiple sclerosis: results of a 24-month double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial and 5 years of follow-up treatment. Eur J Neurol 13(8):887–895
Bar-Or A, Vollmer T, Antel J, Arnold DL, Bodner CA, Campagnolo D, … Garren H (2007) Induction of antigen-specific tolerance in multiple sclerosis after immunization with DNA encoding myelin basic protein in a randomized, placebo-controlled phase 1/2 trial. Arch Neurol 64(10):1407–1415
Menges M, Rößner S, Voigtländer C, Schindler H, Kukutsch NA, Bogdan C, … Lutz MB (2002) Repetitive injections of dendritic cells matured with tumor necrosis factor α induce antigen-specific protection of mice from autoimmunity. J Exp Med 195(1):15–22
Nchinda G, Kuroiwa J, Oks M, Trumpfheller C, Park CG, Huang Y, … Steinman RM (2008) The efficacy of DNA vaccination is enhanced in mice by targeting the encoded protein to dendritic cells. J Clin Investig 118(4):1427–1436
Hawiger D, Masilamani RF, Bettelli E, Kuchroo VK, Nussenzweig MC (2004) Immunological unresponsiveness characterized by increased expression of CD5 on peripheral T cells induced by dendritic cells in vivo. Immunity 20(6):695–705
Dzionek A, Sohma Y, Nagafune J, Cella M, Colonna M, Facchetti F, … Schmitz J (2001) BDCA-2, a novel plasmacytoid dendritic cell–specific type II C-type lectin, mediates antigen capture and is a potent inhibitor of interferon α/β induction. J Exp Med 194(12):1823–1834
Tarbell KV, Petit L, Zuo X, Toy P, Luo X, Mqadmi A, … Steinman RM (2007) Dendritic cell–expanded, islet-specific CD4+ CD25+ CD62L+ regulatory T cells restore normoglycemia in diabetic NOD mice. J Exp Med 204(1):191–201
Karni A, Abraham M, Monsonego A, Cai G, Freeman GJ, Hafler D, … Weiner HL (2006) Innate immunity in multiple sclerosis: myeloid dendritic cells in secondary progressive multiple sclerosis are activated and drive a pro-inflammatory immune response. J Immunol 177(6):4196–4202
Bielekova B, Goodwin B, Richert N, Cortese I, Kondo T, Afshar G, … Martin R (2000) Encephalitogenic potential of the myelin basic protein peptide (amino acids 83–99) in multiple sclerosis: results of a phase II clinical trial with an altered peptide ligand. Nat Med 6(10):1167–1175
Benkhoucha M, Santiago-Raber ML, Schneiter G, Chofflon M, Funakoshi H, Nakamura T, Lalive PH (2010) Hepatocyte growth factor inhibits CNS autoimmunity by inducing tolerogenic dendritic cells and CD25+ Foxp3+ regulatory T cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci 107(14):6424–6429
Kremer JM, Bloom BJ, Breedveld FC, Coombs JH, Fletcher MP, Gruben D, … Zwillich SH (2012) The safety and efficacy of a JAK inhibitor in patients with active rheumatoid arthritis: results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled phase IIa trial of three dosage levels of CP-690,550 versus placebo. Arthritis Rheum 64(5):1487–1487
Palucka K, Banchereau J (2012) Cancer immunotherapy via dendritic cells. Nat Rev Cancer 12(4):265–277
Jia J, Zhang Y, Xin Y, Jiang C, Yan B, Zhai S (2018) Interactions between nanoparticles and dendritic cells: from the perspective of cancer immunotherapy. Front Oncol 8:404
Matias BF, De Oliveira TM, Rodrigues CM, Abdalla DR, Montes L, Murta EF, Michelin MA (2013) Influence of immunotherapy with autologous dendritic cells on innate and adaptive immune response in cancer. Clin Med Insights Oncol 7:CMO-S12268
Wang X, Zhao HY, Zhang FC, Sun Y, Xiong ZY, Jiang XB (2014) Dendritic cell-based vaccine for the treatment of malignant glioma: a systematic review. Cancer Invest 32(9):451–457
Mitchell DA, Batich KA, Gunn MD, Huang MN, Sanchez-Perez L, Nair SK, … Sampson JH (2015) Tetanus toxoid and CCL3 improve dendritic cell vaccines in mice and glioblastoma patients. Nature 519(7543):366–369
Jauregui-Amezaga A, Cabezón R, Ramírez-Morros A, España C, Rimola J, Bru C, … Ricart E (2015) Intraperitoneal administration of autologous tolerogenic dendritic cells for refractory Crohn’s disease: a phase I study. J Crohns Colitis 9(12):1071–1078
Works MG, Koenig JB, Sapolsky RM (2013) Soluble TNF receptor 1-secreting ex vivo-derived dendritic cells reduce injury after stroke. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 33(9):1376–1385
Manley NC, Caso JR, Works MG, Cutler AB, Zemlyak I, Sun G, … Sapolsky RM (2013) Derivation of injury-responsive dendritic cells for acute brain targeting and therapeutic protein delivery in the stroke-injured rat. PLoS One 8(4):e61789
Lemere CA, Masliah E (2010) Can Alzheimer disease be prevented by amyloid-β immunotherapy? Nat Rev Neurol 6(2):108–119
Luo Z, Li J, Nabar NR, Lin X, Bai G, Cai J, … Wang J (2012) Efficacy of a therapeutic vaccine using mutated β-amyloid sensitized dendritic cells in Alzheimer’s mice. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 7(3):640–655
Wang F, Liu H, Shen X, Ao H, Moore N, Gao L, … Liang C (2015) The combined treatment of amyloid-β1-42-stimulated bone marrow–derived dendritic cells plus splenocytes from young mice prevents the development of Alzheimer’s disease in APPswe/PSENldE9 mice. Neurobiol Aging 36(1):111–122
Romero-Ramos M, von Euler Chelpin M, Sanchez-Guajardo V (2014) Vaccination strategies for Parkinson disease: induction of a swift attack or raising tolerance? Hum Vaccin Immunother 10(4):852–867
Acknowledgements
Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACYT) Mexico is thankfully acknowledged for partially supporting this work under Sistema Nacional de Investigadores (SNI) program awarded to Hafiz MN Iqbal (CVU: 735340).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All listed authors equally contributed from conceptualization to compilation.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Research Involving Human Participants and/or Animals
Not applicable.
Competing Interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hussain, A., Rafeeq, H., Munir, N. et al. Dendritic Cell–Targeted Therapies to Treat Neurological Disorders. Mol Neurobiol 59, 603–619 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-021-02622-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-021-02622-4