Abstract
Introduction
Methylene blue (MB) infusion is frequently used to localize the parathyroid glands during parathyroidectomy and generally considered safe. Several recent reports suggest neurological toxicity and post-operative altered mental state typically after large dose infusions. The mechanism by which MB has neurotoxic effects in some patients remains uncertain.
Methods/Results
Case Report: A 67-year-old male underwent lumbar laminectomy followed by parathyroidectomy. Postoperatively, he was comatose (Glasgow Coma Scale of 7) and underwent extensive neurological evaluation. Brain computed tomography (CT) imaging and CT angiography revealed no ischemia, vessel occlusion, or hemorrhage. Electroencephalogram (EEG) showed only slowing of cerebral hemispheric activity bilaterally. Over the next 48 h, his mental status slowly improved and the patient made a full neurological recovery (Glasgow Coma Scale 15).
Conclusion
Methylene blue, when used in patients on antidepressant drugs, may be associated with a transient encephalopathic state and serotonin syndrome. Patients on antidepressants undergoing parathyroidectomy who may receive MB infusion should be considered for alternative parathyroid gland identification or discontinuation of the antidepressants before surgery. MB-associated serotonin syndrome is an increasing and under recognized (‘green’) post-operative encephalopathy that warrants education to critical care neurologists and other physicians.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Gordon DL, Airan MC, Thomas W, Seidman LH. Parathyroid identification by methylene blue infusion. Br J Surg. 1975;62(9):747–9. doi:10.1002/bjs.1800620919.
Kuriloff DB, Sanborn KV. Rapid intraoperative localization of parathyroid glands utilizing methylene blue infusion. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2004;131(5):616–22. doi:10.1016/j.otohns.2004.04.026.
Ahmed TS. Methylene blue toxicity following infusion to localize parathyroid adenoma. J Laryngol Otol. 2006;120(8):708–9. Author reply.
Khan MA, North AP, Chadwick DR. Prolonged postoperative altered mental status after methylene blue infusion during parathyroidectomy: a case report and review of the literature. Ann R Coll Surg Engl. 2007;89(2):W9–11. doi:10.1308/147870807X160434.
Vutskits L, Briner A, Klauser P, et al. Adverse effects of methylene blue on the central nervous system. Anesthesiology. 2008;108(4):684–92.
Martindale SJ, Stedeford JC. Neurological sequelae following methylene blue injection for parathyroidectomy. Anaesthesia. 2003;58(10):1041–2. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2044.2003.03415_23.x.
Ramsay RR, Dunford C, Gillman PK. Methylene blue and serotonin toxicity: inhibition of monoamine oxidase A (MAO A) confirms a theoretical prediction. Br J Pharmacol. 2007;152(6):946–51. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0707430.
Derom AF, Wallaert PC, Janzing HM, Derom FE. Intraoperative identification of parathyroid glands with methylene blue infusion. Am J Surg. 1993;165(3):380–2. doi:10.1016/S0002-9610(05)80850-5.
Gavilan J, Gavilan C, Tomas MD. Methylene blue infusion for intraoperative identification of the parathyroid glands. Laryngoscope. 1986;96(12):1389–90.
Wheeler MH, Wade JS. Intraoperative identification of parathyroid glands: appraisal of methylene blue staining. Am J Surg. 1982;143(6):713–6. doi:10.1016/0002-9610(82)90043-5.
Peter C, Hongwan D, Kupfer A, Lauterburg BH. Pharmacokinetics and organ distribution of intravenous and oral methylene blue. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2000;56(3):247–50. doi:10.1007/s002280000124.
Meissner PE, Mandi G, Coulibaly B, et al. Methylene blue for malaria in Africa: results from a dose-finding study in combination with chloroquine. Malar J. 2006;5:84. doi:10.1186/1475-2875-5-84.
Drugdex ® Methylene Blue System. In: Micromedex Healthcare Online Series: Thomson Healthcare; 2008.
Fleming A. Haematological diseases in the tropics. In: Cook G, Zumla A, editors. Manson’s tropical diseases. 21st ed. London: Elsevier Science; 2003. p. 169–243.
Bach KK, Lindsay FW, Berg LS, Howard RS. Prolonged postoperative disorientation after methylene blue infusion during parathyroidectomy. Anesth Analg. 2004;99(5):1573–4. doi:10.1213/01.ANE.0000134860.73875.CF. Table of contents.
Siebert C, Kroeber S, Lutter N. Prolonged postoperative disorientation after methylene blue infusion during parathyroidectomy. Anesth Analg. 2005;101(2):608–9. doi:10.1213/01.ANE.0000159003.49024.F5. Author reply.
Sweet G, Standiford SB. Methylene-blue-associated encephalopathy. J Am Coll Surg. 2007;204(3):454–8. doi:10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2006.12.030.
Ng BK, Cameron AJ, Liang R, Rahman H. Serotonin syndrome following methylene blue infusion during parathyroidectomy: a case report and literature review. Can J Anaesth. 2008;55(1):36–41.
Majithia A, Stearns MP. Methylene blue toxicity following infusion to localize parathyroid adenoma. J Laryngol Otol. 2006;120(2):138–40. doi:10.1017/S0022215105005098.
Boyer EW, Shannon M. The serotonin syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2005;352(11):1112–20. doi:10.1056/NEJMra041867.
Mathew S, Linhartova L, Raghuraman G. Hyperpyrexia and prolonged postoperative disorientation following methylene blue infusion during parathyroidectomy. Anaesthesia. 2006;61(6):580–3. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2044.2006.04619.x.
Mihai R, Mitchell EW, Warwick J. Dose-response and postoperative confusion following methylene blue infusion during parathyroidectomy. Can J Anaesth. 2007;54(1):79–81.
Radomski JW, Dursun SM, Reveley MA, Kutcher SP. An exploratory approach to the serotonin syndrome: an update of clinical phenomenology and revised diagnostic criteria. Med Hypotheses. 2000;55(3):218–24. doi:10.1054/mehy.2000.1047.
Birmes P, Coppin D, Schmitt L, Lauque D. Serotonin syndrome: a brief review. CMAJ. 2003;168(11):1439–42.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Rowley, M., Riutort, K., Shapiro, D. et al. Methylene Blue-Associated Serotonin Syndrome: A ‘Green’ Encephalopathy After Parathyroidectomy. Neurocrit Care 11, 88–93 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12028-009-9206-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12028-009-9206-z