Skip to main content

Extrapituitary production of anterior pituitary hormones: an overview

Endocrine volume 41, pages 19–30 (2012)Cite this article

Abstract

Protein hormones from the anterior pituitary gland have well-established endocrine roles in their peripheral target glands. It is, however, now known that these proteins are also produced within many of their target tissues, in which they act as local autocrine or paracrine factors, with physiological and/or pathophysiological significance. This emerging concept is the focus of this brief review.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

References

  1. D. Le Roith. The insulin-like growth factor system. Exp. Diabetes Res. 4, 205–212 (2003)

    Google Scholar 

  2. D. Le Roith, C. Bondy, S. Yakar, J.L. Liu, A. Butler, The somatomedin hypothesis: 2001. Endocr. Rev. 22, 53–74 (2001)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. K. Sjogren, J.O. Jansson, O.G. Isaksson, C. Ohlsson, A model for tissue-specific inducible insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) inactivation to determine the physiological role of liver-derived IGF-I. Endocrine 19, 249–256 (2002)

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. G. Rindi, A. Torsello, V. Locatelli, E. Solcia, Ghrelin expression and actions: a novel peptide for an old cell type of the diffuse endocrine system. Exp. Biol. Med. 229, 1007–1016 (2004)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. H. Kojima, M. Fujimiya, K. Matsumura, T. Nakahara, M. Hara, L. Chan, Extra-pancreatic insulin-producing cells in multiple organs in diabetes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101, 2458–2463 (2004)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. E.J. Sanders, S. Harvey, Peptide hormones as developmental growth and differentiation factors. Dev. Dyn. 237, 1537–1552 (2008)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. M.V. Urgrumov, Developing brain as an endocrine organ: a paradoxical reality. Neurochem. Res. 35, 837–850 (2010)

    Google Scholar 

  8. S. Harvey, Extrapituitary growth hormone. Endocrine 38, 335–359 (2010)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. J.K. Perry, K.M. Mohankumar, B.S. Emerald, H.C. Mertani, P.E. Lobie, The contribution of growth hormone to mammary neoplasia. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia. 13, 131–145 (2008)

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. V. Pandey, J.K. Perry, K.M. Mohankumar, X.J. Kong, S.M. Liu, Z.S. Wu, M.D. Mitchell, T. Zhu, P.E. Lobie, Autocrine human growth hormone stimulates oncogenicity of endometrial carcinoma cells. Endocrinology 149, 3909–3919 (2008)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. S.E. Brunet-Dunand, C. Vouyovitch, S. Araneda, V. Pandey, L.J. Vidal, C. Print, H.C. Mertani, P.E. Lobie, J.K. Perry, Autocrine human growth hormone promotes tumor angiogenesis in mammary carcinoma. Endocrinology 150, 1341–1352 (2009)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Z.S. Wu, K. Yang, Y. Wan, P.X. Qian, J.K. Perry, J. Chiesa, H.C. Mertani, T. Zhu, P.E. Lobie, Tumor expression of human growth hormone and human prolactin predict a worse survival outcome in patients with mammary or endometrial carcinoma. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 96, E1619–E1629 (2011)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. N. Ben-Jonathan, J.L. Mershon, D.L. Allen, R.W. Steinmetz, Extrapituitary prolactin: distribution, regulation, functions, and clinical aspects. Endocr. Rev. 17, 639–669 (1996)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. L. Matera, Endocrine, paracrine and autocrine actions of prolactin on immune cells. Life Sci. 59, 599–614 (1996)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. L. Diaz, I. Martinez-Reza, R. Garcia-Becerra, L. Gonzalez, F. Larrea, Calcitriol stimulates prolactin expression in non-activated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells: breaking paradigms. Cytokine 55, 188–194 (2011)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. K. Horiguchi, S. Yagi, K. Ono, Y. Nishiura, M. Tanaka, M. Ishida, T. Harigaya, Prolactin gene expression in mouse spleen helper T cells. J. Endocrinol. 183, 639–646 (2004)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. K.W. Kelley, D.A. Weigent, R. Kooijman, Protein hormones and immunity. Brain Behav. Immun. 21, 384–392 (2007)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. L. Matera, Action of pituitary and lymphocyte prolactin. Neuroimmunomodulation 4, 171–180 (1997)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. D. Xu, F. Lin, X. Lin, Z. Huang, Z. Lei, Immunoregulation of autocrine prolactin: suppressing the expression of costimulatory molecules and cytokines in T-lymphocytes by prolactin receptor knockdown. Cell. Immunol. 263, 71–78 (2010)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. I. Mendez, J. Alcocer-Varela, A. Parra, A. Lava-Zavala, D.A. de la Cruz, D. Alarcon-Segovia, F. Larrea, Neuroendocrine dopaminergic regulation of prolactin release in systemic lupus erythematosus: a possible role of lymphocyte-derived prolactin. Lupus 13, 45–53 (2004)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. I. Mendez, C. Clarion, L. Diaz, Prolactin in the immunological system: synthesis and biological effects. Rev. Invest. Clin. 57, 447–456 (2005)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. N. Ben-Jonathan, K. Liby, M. McFarland, M. Zinger, Prolactin as an autocrine/paracrine growth factor in human cancer. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 13, 245–250 (2002)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. C. Manhes, V. Goffin, P.A. Kelly, P. Touraine, Autocrine prolactin as a promoter of mammary tumour growth. J. Dairy Res. 72, 58–65 (2005)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. S. Bernichtein, P. Touraine, V. Goffin, New concepts in prolactin biology. J. Endocrinol. 206, 1–11 (2010)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. A. Kurtz, L.A. Bristol, B.E. Toth, E. Lazar-Wesley, L. Takacs, B. Kacsoh, Mammary epithelial cells of lactating rats express prolactin messenger ribonucleic acid. Biol. Reprod. 48, 1095–1103 (1993)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. R.W. Steinmetz, A.L. Grant, P.V. Malven, Transcription of prolactin gene in milk secretory cells of the rat mammary gland. J. Endocrinol. 136, 271–276 (1993)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. T. Harigaya, E. Imata, Y. Mori, Prolactin gene expression in mouse mammary gland during late pregnancy and lactation. Anim. Sci. Technol. 67, 484–485 (1996)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. L. Gabou, M. Boisnard, I. Gourdou, H. Jammes, J.P. Dulor, J. Djiane, Cloning of rabbit prolactin cDNA and prolactin gene expression in the rabbit mammary gland. J. Mol. Endocrinol. 16, 27–37 (1996)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. F. Le Provost, C. Leroux, P. Martin, P. Gaye, J. Djiane, Prolactin gene expression on ovine and caprine mammary gland. Neuroendocrinology 60, 305–313 (1994)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. P.V. Malven, Prolactin and other protein hormones in milk. J. Anim. Sci. 45, 609–616 (1977)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. A. Dagvadorj, S. Collins, J.-B. Jomain, J. Abdulghani, I. Karras, T. Zellweger, H. Li, M. Nurmi, K. Alanen, T. Mirtti, T. Visakorpi, L. Bubendorf, V. Goffin, M.T. Nevalainen, Autocrine prolactin promotes prostate cancer cell growth via Janus kinase-2-signal transducer and activator of transcription-5a/b signaling pathway. Endocrinology 148, 3089–3101 (2007)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. V. Rouet, R.L. Bogorad, C. Kayser, K. Kessal, C. Genestie, A. Bardier, D.R. Grattan, B. Kelder, J.J. Kopchick, P.A. Kelly, V. Goffin, Local prolactin is a target to prevent expansion of basal/stem cells in prostate tumors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA) 107, 15199–15204 (2010)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. E.M. Jacobson, E.R. Hugo, D.C. Borcherding, N. Ben-Jonathan, Prolactin in breast and prostate cancer: molecular and genetic perspectives. Discov. Med. 11, 315–324 (2011)

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. M.T. Nevalainen, E.M. Valve, P.M. Ingleton, M. Nurmi, P.M. Martikainen, P.L. Hardonen, Prolactin and prolactin receptors are expressed and functioning in human prostate. J. Clin. Invest. 99, 618–627 (1997)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. H. Wennbo, J. Kindblom, O.G. Isaksson, J. Tornell, Transgenic mice over-expressing the prolactin gene develop dramatic enlargement of the prostate gland. Endocrinology 138, 4410–4415 (1997)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. J. Kindblom, K. Dillner, L. Sahlin, F. Roberson, D. Ormandy, J. Tornell, H. Wennbo, Prostate hyperplasia in a transgenic mouse with prostate-specific expression of prolactin. Endocrinology 144, 2269–2278 (2003)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. M. Roux, N. Martinat, J.P. Richoux, G. Grignon, Histoimmunological identification of a prolactin-like substance in rodent testis. Cell. Tissue Res. 240, 663–667 (1985)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. M. Ishida, M. Yoshida, S. Fukuta, K. Uemura, M. Iijima, K. Horiguchi, T. Harigaya, Analysis of prolactin gene expression and cleaved prolactin variants in the mouse testis and spermatozoa. J. Reprod. Dev. 56, 567–574 (2010)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. S. Nag, S. Sanyal, K.K. Ghosh, N.M. Biswas, Prolactin suppression and spermatogenic developments in maturing rats. A quantitative study. Horm. Res. 15, 72–77 (1981)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. P. Guillaumot, E. Tabone, M. Benahmed, Sertoli cells as potential targets of prolactin action in the testis. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 122, 199–206 (1996)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. H.N. Jabbour, H.O. Critchley, Potential roles of decidual prolactin in early pregnancy. Reproduction 121, 197–205 (2001)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. L. Bao, C. Tessier, A. Prigent-Tessier, F. Li, O.L. Buzzio, E.A. Callegari, N.D. Horseman, G. Gibori, Decidual prolactin silences the expression of genes detrimental to pregnancy. Endocrinology 148, 2326–2334 (2007)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. M. Zinger, M. McFarland, N. Ben-Jonathan, Prolactin expression and secretion by human breast glandular and adipose tissue explants. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 88, 689–696 (2003)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. T. Brandebourg, E. Hugo, N. Ben-Jonathan, Adipocyte prolactin: regulation of release and putative functions. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 9, 464–476 (2007)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. M. McFarland-Mancini, E. Hugo, J. Loftus, N. Ben-Jonathan, Induction of prolactin expression and release in human preadipocytes by cAMP activating ligands. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 344, 9–16 (2006)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. E.R. Hugo, D.C. Borcherding, K.S. Gersin, J. Loftus, N. Ben-Jonathan, Prolactin release by adipose explants, primary adipocytes, and LS14 adipocytes. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 93, 4006–4012 (2008)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. C. Ling, G. Hellgren, M. Gebre-Medhin, K. Dillner, H. Wennbo, B. Carlsson, H. Billig, Prolactin (PRL) receptor gene expression in mouse adipose tissue: increases during lactation and in PRL-transgenic mice. Endocrinology 141, 3564–3572 (2000)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. C. Ling, L. Svensson, B. Oden, B. Weijdegard, B. Eden, S. Eden, H. Billig, Identification of functional prolactin (PRL) receptor gene expression: PRL inhibits lipoprotein lipase activity in human white adipose tissue. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 88, 1804–1808 (2003)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. T.D. Brandebourg, J.L. Bown, N. Ben-Jonathan, Prolactin upregulates its receptors and inhibits lipolysis and leptin release in male rat adipose tissue. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 357, 408–413 (2007)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. E.A. Langan, K. Foitzik-Lau, V. Goffin, Y. Ramot, R. Paus, Prolactin: an emerging force along the cutaneous-endocrine axis. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 21, 569–577 (2010)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. R.G. Richards, S.M. Hartman, Human dermal fibroblast cells express prolactin in vitro. J. Invest. Dermatol. 106, 1250–1255 (1996)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. K. Foitzik, E.A. Langan, R. Paus, Prolactin and the skin: a dermatological perspective on an ancient pleiotropic peptide hormone. J. Invest. Dermatol. 129, 1071–1087 (2009)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. K. Foitzik, K. Krause, F. Conrad, M. Nakamura, W. Funk, R. Paus, Human scalp hair follicles are both a target and a source of prolactin, which serves as an autocrine and/or paracrine promoter of apoptosis-driven hair follicle regression. Am. J. Pathol. 168, 748–756 (2006)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. C. Clapp, F.J. Lopez-Gomez, G. Nava, A. Corbacho, L. Torner, Y. Macotela, Z. Dueňas, Z. Ochoa, G. Noris, E. Acosta, E. Garay, G.M. de la Escalera, Expression of prolactin mRNA and of prolactin-like proteins in endothelial cells: evidence for autocrine effects. J. Endocrinol. 158, 113–160 (1998)

    Google Scholar 

  55. M. Koizumi, K. Horiguchi, Y. Tomita, Y. Kato, T. Harigaya, Prolactin gene expression in the mouse nipple. J. Reprod. Dev. 49, 465–472 (2003)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. C. Clapp, G.Martinez. de la Escalera, Prolactins: novel regulators of angiogenesis. News Physiol. Sci. 12, 231–237 (1997)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. A.M. Corbacho, G.Martinez. de la Escalera, C. Clapp, Roles of prolactin and related members of the prolactin/growth hormone/placental lactogen family in angiogenesis. J. Endocrinol. 173, 219–238 (2002)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. A.M. Corbacho, Y. Macotela, G. Nava, L. Torner, Z. Dueňas, G. Noris, M.A. Morales, G.Martinez. de la Escalera, C. Clapp, Human umbilical vein endothelial cells express multiple prolactin isoforms. J. Endocrinol. 166, 53–62 (2000)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. A.M. Corbacho, G. Nava, J.P. Eiserich, G. Noris, Y. Macotela, I. Struman, G.M. de la Escalera, B.A. Freeman, C. Clapp, Proteolytic cleavage confers nitric oxide synthase inducing activity upon prolactin. J. Biol. Chem. 275, 13183–13186 (2000)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. A. Ochoa, P.Montes. de Oca, J.C. Rivera, Z. Dueňas, G. Nava, G.M. de la Escalera, C. Clapp, Expression of prolactin gene and secretion of prolactin by rat retinal capillary endothelial cells. Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 42, 1639–1645 (2001)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. C. Clapp, L. Torner, G. Gutierrez-Ospina, E. Alcantara, F.J. Lopez-Gomez, M. Nagano, P.A. Kelly, S. Mejia, M.A. Morales, G.M. de la Escalera, The prolactin gene is expressed in the hypothalamic-neurohypophyseal system and the protein is processed into a 14 kDa fragment with activity like 16 kDa prolactin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA) 91, 10384–10388 (1994)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. B.L. Hansen, G.N. Hansen, C. Hagen, Immunoreactive material resembling ovine prolactin in perikarya and nerve terminals of the rat hypothalamus. Cell Tissue Res. 226, 121–131 (1982)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. L. Torner, I.D. Neumann, The brain prolactin system: involvement in stress response adaptations in lactation. Stress 5, 249–257 (2002)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. L. Torner, S. Mejia, F.J. Lopez-Gomez, A. Quintanar, G. Martinez. de la Escalera, C. Clapp, A 14-kilodalton prolactin-like fragment is secreted by the hypothalamo-neurohypophyseal system of the rat. Endocrinology 136, 5454–5460 (1995)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. M. Lkhider, S. Delpal, F. Le Provost, M. Ollivier-Bousquet, Rat prolactin synthesis by lactating mammary epithelial cells. FEBS Lett. 401, 117–122 (1997)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. D.R. Grattan, I.C. Kokay, Prolactin: a pleiotropic neuroendocrine hormone. J. Neuroendocrinol. 20, 752–763 (2008)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. R.J. Walsh, L.P. Mangurian, B.I. Posner, Prolactin receptors in the primate choroid plexus. J. Anat. 168, 137–141 (1990)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. R.J. Walsh, F.J. Slaby, B.I. Posner, A receptor-mediated mechanism for the transport of prolactin from blood to cerebrospinal fluid. Endocrinology 120, 1846–1850 (1987)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. S. Harvey, D. Rattray, M.-L. Baudet, E.J. Sanders, Ocular pituitary hormones in the chick embryo, in Functional avian endocrinology, ed. by A. Dawson, P.J. Sharp (Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, 2005), pp. 403–414

    Google Scholar 

  70. Z. Dueňas, L. Torner, A.M. Corbacho, G. Gutierrez-Ospina, F. Lopez-Barrera, F.A. Barrios, P. Berger, G.Martinez. de la Escalera, C. Clapp, Inhibition of rat corneal angiogenesis by 16 kDa prolactin and by endogenous prolactin-like molecules. Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 40, 2498–2505 (1999)

    Google Scholar 

  71. H. Quiroz, Z. Dueňas, F. Lopez-Barrera, G. Nava, A. Ochoa, G. Noris, G.Martinez. de la Escalera, C. Clapp, Detection of prolactin and prolactin mRNA in the eye of patients with retinopathy of prematurity. Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 41, 12 (2000). (abstract 1766)

    Google Scholar 

  72. Z. Dueňas, J.C. Rivera, H. Quiroz-Mercado, J. Aranda, Y. Macotela, P.M. de Oca, F. Lopez-Barrera, G. Nava, J.L. Guerrero, A. Suarez, M. De Regil, G.M. del la Escalera, C. Clapp, Prolactin in eyes of patients with retinopathy of prematurity: implications of vascular regression. Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 45, 2049–2055 (2004)

    Google Scholar 

  73. C.M. Shaw-Bruha, S.J. Pirrucello, J.D. Shull, Expression of the prolactin gene in normal and neoplastic human breast tissues and human mammary cell lines: promoter usage and alternative mRNA splicing. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 44, 243–253 (1997)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. S. Gerlo, J.R.E. Davis, D.L. Mager, R. Kooijman, Prolactin in man: a tale of two promoters. BioEssays 28, 1051–1055 (2006)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. R. Telgmann, E. Maronde, K. Tasken, B. Gellersen, Activated protein kinase A is required for differentiation-dependent transcription of the decidual prolactin gene in human endometrial stromal cells. Endocrinology 138, 929–937 (1997)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. G.H. Reem, D.W. Ray, J.R. Davis, The human prolactin gene upstream promoter is regulated in lymphoid cells by activators of T-cells and by cAMP. J. Mol. Endocrinol. 22, 285–292 (1999)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Y. Jiang, Y. Hu, J. Zhao, X. Zhen, G. Yan, H. Sun, The orphan nuclear receptor Nur77 regulates decidual prolactin expression in human endometrial stromal cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 404, 628–633 (2011)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. S. Handweger, R.G. Richards, E. Markoff, The physiology of decidual prolactin and other decidual protein hormones. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 3, 91–95 (1992)

    Google Scholar 

  79. E. Markoff, S. Barry, S. Handwerger, Influence of osmolality and ionic environment on the secretion of prolactin by human decidua in vitro. J. Endocrinol. 92, 103–110 (1982)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. E. Kiapekou, D. Loutradis, E. Patsoula, G.A. Koussidis, V. Minas, R. Bletsa, A. Antsaklis, S. Michalas, A. Makrigiannakis, Prolactin receptor mRNA expression in oocytes and preimplantation mouse embryos. Reprod. Biomed. Online 10, 339–346 (2005)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. A.K. Karabulut, R. Layfield, M.K. Pratten, The mechanism of growth-promoting effects of prolactin in embryogenesis—links to growth factors. Cell Tissue Organs 164, 2–13 (1999)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. A.K. Karabulut, M.K. Pratten, Species-specificity of growth-promoting effects of prolactin during rat embryogenesis. J. Anat. 192, 1–12 (1998)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. K. Ishibashi, M. Imai, Identification of four new members of the rat prolactin/growth hormone gene family. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 262, 575–578 (1999)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. D.J. Toft, D.I. Linzer, Identification of three prolactin-related hormones as markers of invasive trophoblasts in the rat. Biol. Reprod. 63, 519–525 (2000)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. N. Sahgal, G.T. Knipp, B. Liu, B.M. Chapman, G. Dai, M.J. Soares, Identification of two new nonclassical members of the rat prolactin family. J. Mol. Endocrinol. 24, 95–108 (2000)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. D.O. Wiemers, R. Ain, S. Ohboshi, M.J. Soares, Migratory trophoblast cells express a newly identified member of the prolactin gene family. J. Endocrinol. 179, 335–345 (2003)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Y. Wang, J. Li, A.H. Yan Kwok, W. Ge, F.C. Leung, A novel prolactin-like protein (PRL-L) gene in chickens and zebrafish: cloning and characterization of its tissue expression. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 166, 200–210 (2010)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. B.A. Eipper, R.E. Mains, Structure and biosynthesis of pro-adenocorticotropin/endorphin and related peptides. Endocr. Rev. 1, 1–27 (1980)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. A.N. Eberle, Structure and chemistry of the peptide hormones of the intermediate lobe. Ciba Found. Symp. 81, 13–31 (1981)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. A.B. Bicknell, Identification of the adrenal protease that cleaves pro-gamma-MSH: the dawning of a new era in adrenal physiology? J. Endocrinol. 172, 405–410 (2002)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. S. Takeuchi, S. Takahashi, R. Okimoto, H.B. Schioth, T. Boswell, Avian melanocortin system: α-MSH may act as an autocrine/paracrine hormone. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 994, 366–372 (2003)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. K. Teshigawara, S. Takahashi, T. Boswell, Q. Li, S. Tanaka, S. Takeuchi, Identification of avian α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone in the eye: temporal and spatial regulation of expression in the developing chicken. J. Endocrinol. 168, 527–537 (2001)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. N. Lindqvist, U. Napankangas, J. Lindblom, F. Hallbook, Proopiomelanocortin and melanocortin receptors in the adult rat retino-tectal system and their regulation after optic nerve transaction. Euro. J. Pharmacol. 482, 85–94 (2003)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. L.-I. Larsson, Corticotropin-like peptides in central nerves and in endocrine cells of gut and pancreas. Lancet 2, 1321–1323 (1977)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. E. Saito, S. Iwasa, W.D. Odell, Widespread presence of large molecular weight adrenocorticotropin-like substances in normal rat extrapituitary tissues. Endocrinology 113, 1010–1019 (1983)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. E.S. Orwoll, J.W. Kendall, Beta-endorphin and adrenocorticotropin extrapituitary sites: gastrointestinal tract. Endocrinology 107, 438–442 (1980)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. S.I. Grigorakis, E. Anastasiou, K. Dai, A. Souvatzoglou, M. Alevizaki, Three mRNA transcripts of the proopiomelanocortin gene in human placenta at term. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 142, 533–536 (2000)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. P.D. Lyons, J.E. Blalock, Proopiomelanocortin gene expression and protein processing in rat mononuclear leukocytes. J. Neuroimmunol. 78, 47–56 (1978)

    Google Scholar 

  99. D.A. Weigent, J.E. Blalock, Interactions between the neuroendocrine and immune systems: common hormones and receptors. Immunol. Rev. 100, 79–108 (1987)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. A. Franchini, E. Ottaviani, Immunoreactive POMC-derived peptides and cytokines in the chicken thymus and bursa of Fabricius microenvironments: age-related changes. J. Neuroendocrinol. 11, 685–692 (1999)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. A. Slominski, J. Wortsman, Neuroendocrinology of the skin. Endocr. Rev. 21, 457–487 (2000)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. R. Paus, V.A. Botchkarev, N.V. Botchkareva, L. Mecklenburg, T. Luger, A. Slominski, The skin POMC system (SPS). Leads and lessons from the hair follicle. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 20, 350–363 (1999)

    Google Scholar 

  103. K. Seiffert, R. Granstein, Neuropeptides and neuroendocrine hormones in ultraviolet radiation-induced immunosuppression. Methods 28, 97 (2002)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. T.E. Scholzen, T. Brzoska, D.H. Kalden, M. Hartmeyer, M. Fastrich, T.A. Luger, C.A. Armstrong, J.E. Ansel, Expression of functional melanocortin receptors and proopiomelanocortin peptides by human dermal microvascular endothelial cells. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 20, 239–253 (1999)

    Google Scholar 

  105. M. Tsatmali, J. Ancans, J. Yukitake, A.J. Thody, Skin POMC peptides: their actions at the human MC-1 receptor and roles in the tanning response. Pigment Cell Res. 13, 125–129 (2000)

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. M. Nagahama, Y. Funasaka, M.L. Fernandez-Frez, A. Ohashi, A.K. Chakraborty, M. Ueda, M. Ichihashi, Immunoreactivity of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormones and beta-endorphin in cutaneous malignant melanoma and benign melanocytic naevi. Br. J. Dermatol. 138, 981–985 (1998)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. M. De Martin, F. Pecori Giraldi, F. Cavagnini, Cushing’s disease. Pituitary 9, 279–287 (2006)

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. A.E. Murphy, S. Harvey, Extrapituitary beta TSH and GH in early chick embryos. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 185, 161–171 (2001)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. A.E. Murphy, S. Harvey, Extrapituitary TSH in early chick embryos: Pit-1 dependence? J. Mol. Neurosci. 18, 77–87 (2002)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. F.J. Fernandez-Trujillo, A. Prada, C. Verastegui, Thyrotropin-like immunoreactivity in human retina: immunoreactive colocalization in ganglion cells in perivascular fibers. Neurochem. Int. 28, 381–384 (1996)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. J.A. Prada, C. Verastegui, N. Perez-Rios, M. Gonzalez-Moreno, F.J. Fernandez-Trujillo, Thyrotropin-like immunoreactivity in the developing chicken retina. Eur. J. Morphol. 38, 34–40 (2000)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. S.W. Kohl, G.J. Chader, Agonist effects on the intracellular cyclic AMP concentration of retinal pigment epithelial cells in culture. J. Neurochem. 42, 287–289 (1984)

    Google Scholar 

  113. S.A. Joseph, K.M. Knigge, Localization and content of TSH in median eminence of the hypothalamus. Am. J. Physiol. 226, 630–633 (1974)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. W.J. DeVito, T.N. Spearman, J.M. Connors, G.A. Hedge, Subcellular localization of immunoreactive thyroid-stimulating hormone in the rat hypothalamus. Neuroendocrinology 42, 459–466 (1986)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. W.J. DeVito, Comparison of brain and pituitary immunoreactive prolactin by peptide mapping and lectin affinity chromatography. Endocrinology 125, 2439–2444 (1989)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. S. Hojvat, N. Emanuele, G. Baker, E. Connick, L. Kirsteins, A.M. Lawrence, Growth hormone (GH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH)-like peptides in the rodent brain: non-parallel ontogenetic development with pituitary counterparts. Brain Res. 256, 427–434 (1982)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. E.M. Smith, M. Phan, T.E. Kruger, D.H. Coppenhaver, J.E. Blalock, Human lymphocyte production of immunoreactive thyrotropin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 80, 6010–6013 (1983)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. J.R. Klein, The immune system as a regulator of thyroid hormone activity. Exp. Biol. Med. 231, 229–236 (2006)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. E.U. Bagriacik, Q. Zhou, H.C. Wang, J.R. Klein, Rapid and transient reduction in circulating thyroid hormones following systemic antigen priming: implications of functional collaboration between dendritic cells and thyroid. Cell. Immunol. 212, 92–100 (2001)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. J. Wang, M. Whetsell, J.R. Klein, Local hormone networks and intestinal T cells homeostasis. Science 275, 1937–1939 (1997)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. V.L. Scofield, D. Montufar-Solis, E. Cheng, M.K. Estes, J.R. Klein, Intestinal TSH production is localized in crypt enterocytes and in villus ‘hotblocks’ and is coupled to IL-7 production: evidence for involvement of TSH during acute enteric virus infection. Immunol. Lett. 99, 36–44 (2005)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. H.C. Wang, J. Dragoo, Q. Zhou, J.R. Klein, An intrinsic thyrotropin-mediated pathway of TNF-alpha production by bone marrow cells. Blood 101, 119–123 (2003)

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. D.V. Harbour, T.E. Kruger, D. Coppenhaver, E.M. Smith, W.J. Meyer 3rd, Differential expression and regulation of thyrotropin (TSH) in T cells lines. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 64, 229–241 (1989)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. S. Varghese, D. Montufar-Solis, B.H. Vincent, J.R. Klein, Virus infection activates thyroid stimulating hormone synthesis in intestinal epithelial cells. J. Cell. Biochem. 105, 271–276 (2008)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. J.R. Klein, H.C. Wang, Characterization of a novel set of resident intrathyroidal bone marrow-derived hematopoietic cells: potential for immune-endocrine interactions in thyroid homeostasis. J. Exp. Biol. 207, 55–65 (2004)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. J.S. Schaefer, J.R. Klein, Immunological regulation of metabolism—a novel quintessential role for the immune system in health and disease. FASEB J. 25, 29–34 (2011)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. B.H. Vincent, D. Montufar-Solis, B.B. Teng, B.A. Amendt, J. Schaefer, J.R. Klein, Bone marrow cells produce a novel TSHbeta splice variant that is upregulated in the thyroid following systemic virus infection. Genes Immun. 10, 18–26 (2009)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. J.S. Schaefer, J.R. Klein, A novel thyroid stimulating hormone beta-subunit isoform in human pituitary, peripheral blood leukocytes, and thyroid. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 162, 241–244 (2009)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. E. Bodo, B. Kany, E. Gaspar, J. Knuver, A. Kromminga, Y. Ramot, T. Biro, A. Tiede, N. van Beek, B. Poeggeler, K.C. Meyer, B.E. Wenzel, R. Paus, Thyroid-stimulating hormone, a novel, locally produced modulator of human epidermal functions, is regulated by thyrotropin-releasing hormone and thyroid hormones. Endocrinology 151, 1633–1642 (2010)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. B. Poeggeler, J. Knuever, E. Gaspar, T. Biro, M. Klinger, E. Bodo, R.J. Wiesner, B.E. Wenzel, R. Paus, Thyrotropin powers human mitochondria. FASEB J. 24, 1525–1531 (2010)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. N. Shirasawa, M. Shiino, Y. Shimizu, H. Nogami, S. Ishii, Immunoreactive luteinizing hormone (ir-LH) cells in the lung and stomach of chick embryos. Cell Tissue Res. 283, 19–27 (1996)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. D.A. Thompson, M.I. Othman, Z. Lei, X. Li, Z.H. Huang, D.M. Eadie, C.V. Rao, Localization of receptors for luteinizing hormone/chorionic gonadotropin in neural retina. Life. Sci. 63, 1057–1064 (1998)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. E. Patsoula, D. Loutradis, P. Drakakis, K. Kallianidis, R. Bletsa, S. Michalas, Expression of mRNA for the LH and FSH receptors in mouse oocytes and preimplantation embryos. Reproduction 121, 455–461 (2001)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. J.Y. Chen, M.J. Chiou, Molecular cloning and functional analysis of the zebrafish luteinizing hormone beta subunit (LH<beta>) promoter. Fish Physiol. Biochem. 36, 1253–1262 (2010)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. R.L. Bowen, M.A. Smith, P.L. Harris, Z. Kubat, R.N. Martins, R.J. Castellani, G. Perry, C.S. Atwood, Elevated luteinizing hormone expression colocalizes with neurons vulnerable to Alzheimer’s disease pathology. J. Neurosci. Res. 70, 514–518 (2002)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. H. Croxatto, J. Arrau, H. Croxatto, Luteinizing hormone-like activity in human median eminence extracts. Nature 204, 584–585 (1964)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. H.P. Noteborn, J. de Koning, F.H. de Jong, I. Ebels, C.A. Salemink, Identification of luteinizing hormone-like proteins in the ovine pineal gland. J. Pineal Res. 12, 118–127 (1992)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. V.A. Isachenkov, O.G. Krivosheev, E.P. Badosov, N.A. Nabatchikova, Extrapituitary localization of luteinizing hormone in rats. Vopr. Med. Khim. 27, 527–534 (1981)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. A.C. Wilson, M.S. Salamat, R.J. Haasl, K.M. Roche, A. Karande, S.V. Meethal, E. Terasawa, R.L. Bowen, C.S. Atwood, Human neurons express type I GnRH receptor and respond to GnRH I by increasing luteinizing hormone expression. J. Endocrinol. 191, 651–663 (2006)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. A.A. Al-Hader, Z.M. Lei, C.V. Rao, Novel expression of functional luteinizing hormone/chorionic gonadotropin receptors in cultured glial cells from neonatal rat brains. Biol. Reprod. 56, 501–507 (1997)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. R. Lathe, Hormones and the hippocampus. J. Endocrinol. 169, 205–231 (2001)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. I.S. Parhar, T. Soga, S. Ogawa, Y. Sakuma, FSH and LH-beta subunits in the preoptic nucleus: ontogenic expression in teleost. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 132, 369–378 (2003)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. M. Pandolfi, A.G. Pozzi, M. Canepa, P.G. Vissio, A. Shimizu, M.C. Maggese, G. Lobo, Presence of beta-follicle-stimulating hormone and beta-luteinizing hormone transcripts in the brain of Cichlasoma dimerus (Perciformes: Cichlidae): effect of brain-derived gonadotropins on pituitary hormone release. Neuroendocrinology 89, 27–37 (2009)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. P.K. Hotakainen, E.M. Serlachius, S.I. Lintula, H.V. Alfthan, J.P. Schroder, U.E. Stenman, Expression of luteinizing hormone and chorionic gonadotropin beta-subunit messenger-RNA and protein in human peripheral blood leukocytes. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 162, 79–85 (2000)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. P. Sabharwal, S. Varma, W.B. Malarkey, Human thymocytes secrete luteinizing hormone: an autocrine regulator of T-cell proliferation. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 187, 1187–1192 (1992)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. So. W-K, H.-F. Kwok, W. Ge, Zebrafish gonadotropins and their receptors: II. Cloning and characterization of zebrafish follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone subunits—their spatial-temporal expression patterns and receptor specificity. Biol. Reprod. 72, 1382–1396 (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  147. A. Al-Timimi, H. Fox, Immunohistochemical localization of follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, growth hormone, adrenocorticotrophic hormone and prolactin in the human placenta. Placenta 7, 163–172 (1986)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. G.D. Sorenson, O.S. Pettengill, T. Brinck-Johnsen, C.C. Cate, L.H. Maurer, Hormone production by cultures of small-cell carcinoma of the lung. Cancer 47, 1289–1296 (1981)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. M. Fukayama, Y. Hayashi, M. Koike, H. Hajikano, S. Endo, H. Okumura, Human chorionic gonadotropin in lung and lung tumors. Immunohistochemical study on unbalanced distribution of subunits. Lab. Investig. 55, 433–443 (1986)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. A.G. Davies, I.F. Duncan, S.S. Lynch, Autoradiographic localization of 125I-labeled follicle-stimulating hormone in the rat hypothalamus. J. Endocrinol. 66, 301–302 (1975)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. C. Chu, G. Gao, W. Huang, A study on colocalization of FSH and its receptor in rat hippocampus. J. Mol. Histol. 39, 49–55 (2008)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. B. Baccetti, G. Collodel, E. Costantino-Ceccarini, A. Eshkol, L. Gambera, E. Moretti, M. Strazza, P. Piomboni, Localization of human follicle-stimulating hormone in the testis. FASEB J. 12, 1045–1054 (1998)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. C. Chu, B. Xu, H. Weiquan, A study on expression of FSH and its effects on the secretion of insulin and glucagon in rat pancreas. Tissue Cell 42, 370–375 (2010)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. E. Patsoula, D. Loutradis, P. Drakakis, L. Michalas, R. Bletsa, S. Michalas, Messenger RNA expression for the follicle-stimulating hormone receptor and luteinizing hormone receptor in human oocytes and preimplantation-stage embryos. Fertil. Steril. 79, 1187–1193 (2003)

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. P.S. Mandrekar, A.R. Sheth, V.M. Doctor, J.P. Zaveri, N.A. Sheth, Immunocytochemical localization of follicle stimulating hormone in normal human stomach. Anat. Rec. 227, 334–339 (1990)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. S.K. Shahani, S.M. Gupta, P.K. Meherji, Lymphocytes—their possible endocrine role in the regulation of fertility. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol. 35, 1–4 (1996)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. K.S. Hurkadli, M.G. Shah, D.S. Pardanani, A.R. Sheth, De novo biosynthesis of FSH like peptide by the human prostate. Life Sci. 47, 391–400 (1990)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. S.V. Garde, A.R. Sheth, M.G. Shah, S.A. Kulkarni, Prostate—an extrapituitary source of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): occurrence, localization, and de novo biosynthesis and its hormonal modulation in primates and rodents. Prostate 18, 271–287 (1991)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. S.V. Garde, A.R. Sheth, R. Joseph, C.J. Panchal, R.F. Chinoy, N.A. Sheth, Occurrence and de novo biosynthesis of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) in benign and malignant conditions of human breast. Cancer Lett. 75, 1–9 (1993)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. W. Zheng, M.S. Magid, E.E. Kramer, Y.T. Chen, Follicle-stimulating hormone receptor is expressed in human ovarian surface epithelium and fallopian tube. Am. J. Pathol. 148, 47–53 (1996)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. D. Mizrachi, M. Shemesh, Follicle-stimulating hormone receptor and its messenger ribonucleic acid are present in the bovine cervix and can regulate cervical prostanoid synthesis. Biol. Reprod. 61, 776–784 (1999)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. M. Shemesh, D. Mizrachi, M. Gurevich, Y. Stram, L.S. Shore, M.J. Fields, Functional importance of bovine myometrial and vascular LH receptors and cervical FSH receptors. Semin. Reprod. Med. 19, 87–96 (2001)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. C. Bole-Feysot, V. Goffin, M. Edery, N. Binart, P.A. Kelly, Prolactin (PRL) and its receptor: action, signal transduction pathways and phenotypes observed in PRL receptor knockout mice. Endocr. Rev. 19, 225–268 (1998)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. E. Nagy, I. Berczi, Hypophysectomized rats depend on residual prolactin for survival. Endocrinology 128, 2776–2784 (1991)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. B.P. Meij, J.A. Mol, T.S. van den Ingh, M.M. Bevers, H.A. Hazewinkel, A. Rijnberk, Assessment of pituitary function after transsphenoidal hypophysectomy in beagle dogs. Domest. Anim. Endocrinol. 14, 81–97 (1997)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. B.P. Meij, J.A. Mol, M.M. Bevers, A. Rijnberk, Residual pituitary function after transsphenoidal hypophysectomy in dogs with pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism. J. Endocrinol. 155, 531–539 (1997)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. D. Morishita, M. Wakita, S. Hoshino, Effect of hypophysectomy on insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 binding activity of serum in chickens. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Comp. Physiol. 104, 261–265 (1993)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. P.S. Hopkins, A.L. Wallace, G.D. Thorburn, Thyrotrophin concentrations in the plasma of cattle, sheep, and foetal lambs as measured by radioimmunoassay. J. Endocrinol. 64, 371–387 (1975)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. S.H. Shin, S.G. Vincent, C. Maltman, M.C. Obonsawin, J.C. Stokreef, C.W. Reifel, Pulsatile release of immunoreactive luteinizing hormone (irLH) in hypophysectomized male rats. Biol. Reprod. 35, 1115–1122 (1986)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. P.P. Morosini, N. Campanella, G.F. Ferretti, P. Carletti, Hypophyseal gonadotropins after GnRH in patients with hypophyseal tumors and after hypophysectomy. Boll. Soc. Ital. Biol. Sper. 56, 1248–1251 (1980)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. J.M. Hanson, H.S. Kooistra, J.A. Mol, E. Teske, B.P. Meij, Plasma profiles of adrenocorticotropic hormone, cortisol, alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, and growth hormone in dogs with pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism before and after hypophysectomy. J. Endocrinol. 190, 601–609 (2006)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. P.J. Selman, J.A. Mol, G.R. Rutteman, E. van Garderen, A. Rijnberk, Progestin-induced growth hormone excess in the dog originates in the mammary gland. Endocrinology 134, 287–292 (1984)

    Google Scholar 

  173. J.E. Eigenmann, Acromegaly in the dog. Vet. Clin. North Am. Small Anim. Pract. 14, 827–836 (1984)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  174. H.S. Kooistra, G. Voorhout, P.J. Selman, A. Rijnberk, Progestin-induced growth hormone (GH) production in the treatment of dogs with congenital GH deficiency. Domest. Anim. Endocrinol. 15, 93–102 (1998)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. K.I. Alexandraki, A.B. Grossman, The ectopic ACTH syndrome. Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord. 11, 117–126 (2010)

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. M.N. Dizon, D.L. Vesely, Gonadotropin-secreting pituitary tumor associated with hypersecretion of testosterone and hypogonadism after hypophysectomy. Endocr. Pract. 8, 225–231 (2002)

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. D.A. Weigent, J.E. Blalock, Associations between the neuroendocrine and immune systems. J. Leukoc. Biol. 58, 137–150 (1995)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. H.O. Besedovsky, A.D. Rey, Physiology of psychoneuroimmunology: a personal view. Brain Behav. Immun. 21, 34–44 (2007)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. K.L. Hull, F. Nette, S. Harvey, Bidirectional communication between the immune and neuroendocrine systems: role of growth hormone, in Avian endocrinology, ed. by A. Dawson, C.M. Chaturvedi (Narosa Publishing Hourse, New Delhi, 2001), pp. 437–446

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgment

This work was supported by the Natural Science and Research Council of Canada.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Physiology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2H7, Canada

    S. Harvey & E. J. Sanders

  2. Departmento de Neurobiología Celular Y Molecular, Instituto de Neurobiología, Campus Juriquilla, Universidad Nacional, Autónoma de Mexico, Querétaro, Qro, 76230, Mexico

    C. Arámburo

Authors
  1. S. Harvey
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. C. Arámburo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. E. J. Sanders
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to S. Harvey.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Harvey, S., Arámburo, C. & Sanders, E.J. Extrapituitary production of anterior pituitary hormones: an overview. Endocrine 41, 19–30 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12020-011-9557-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12020-011-9557-z

Keywords

  • Growth hormone
  • Prolactin
  • Adrenocorticotropin
  • Thyrotropin
  • Luteinizing hormone
  • Follicle-stimulating hormone