Abstract
In managing acute bronchitis, pneumonia or an exacerbation of underlying chronic bronchitis should be excluded. Simple bronchitis is best treated symptomatically while an exacerbation of chronic bronchitis can be treated with antibiotics. Broad spectrum antibiotics are appropriate in selected patients.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Knutson D, Braun C. Diagnosis and management of acute bronchitis. Am Fam Phy. 2002:65:2039–44.
Gonzales R, Sande MA. Uncomplicated acute bronchitis. Ann Intern Med. 2000;133:981–91.
Steinman MA, Landefeld CS, Gonzales R. Predictors of broad-spectrum antibiotic prescribing for acute respiratory tract infections in adult primary care. JAMA. 2003;289:719–25.
Gonzales R, Steiner JF, Sande MA. Antibiotic prescribing for adults with colds, upper respiratory tract infections, and bronchitis by ambulatory care physicians. JAMA. 1997;278:901–4.
Cantrell R, Young AF, Martin BC. Antibiotic prescribing in ambulatory care settings for adults with colds, upper respiratory tract infections, and bronchitis. Clin Ther. 200224:170–82.
Niederman MS, McCombs JS, Unger AN, Kumar A, Popovian R. Treatment cost of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Clin Therapeut. 1999;21:576–91.
Hall CB, Geiman JM, Biggar R, Kotok KI, Hogan PM, Douglas Jr GR. Respiratory syncytial virus infection within families. N Engl J Med. 1976;294:414–9.
Falsey AR, Walsh EE. Respiratory syncytial virus infection in adults. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2000;13:371–84.
Dowell SF, Anderson LJ, Gary HEJ, Erdman DD, Plouffe JF, File Jr TM. Respiratory syncytial virus is an important cause of community-acquired lower respiratory infection among hospitalized adults. J Infect Dis. 1996;174:456–62.
Falsey AR, Cunningham CK, Barker WH, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus and influenza A infections in the hospitalized elderly. J Infect Dis. 1995;172:389–94.
Monto AS, Gravenstein S, Elliott M, Colopy M, Schweinle J. Clinical signs and symptoms predicting influenza infection. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:3243–7.
Macfarlane JT, Colville A, Guion A, Macfarlane RM, Rose EH. Prospective study of aetiology and outcome of adult lower-respiratory-tract infections in the community. Lancet. 1993;341:511–514.
Macfarlane J, Holmes W, Gard P, et al., Prospective study of the incidence, aetiology and outcome of adult lower respiratory tract illness in the community. Thorax. 2001;56:109–14.
Hament JM, Kimpen JLL, Fleer A, Wolfs TFW. Respiratory viral infection predisposing for bacterial disease: A concise review. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 1999;26:189–95.
Hahn DL, Azenabor AA, Beatty WL, Byrne GI. Chlamydia pneumoniae as a respiratory pathogen. Front Biosci. 2002;7:66–76.
von Konig CHW, Halperin S, Riffelmann M, Guiso N. Pertussis of adults and infants. Lancet Inf Dis. 2002;2:744–50.
Anonymous. Resurgence of pertussis United States, 1993. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1993;42:952-3/959-60.
Metlay JP, Kapoor WN, Fine JM. Does this patient have community-acquired pneumonia? diagnosing pneumonia by history and physical examination. JAMA. 1997;278:1440–5.
Metlay JP, Fine MJ. Testing strategies in the initial management of patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Ann Intern Med. 2003;138:109–18.
Ruiz M, Arosio C, Salman P, Bauer TT, Torres A. Diagnosis of pneumonia and monitoring of infection eradication. Drugs. 2000;60:1289–302.
McFadden JP, Price RC, Eastwood HD, Briggs RS. Raised respiratory rate in elderly patients: A valuable physical sign. Br Med J. 1982;284:626–7.
Metlay JP, Schulz R, Li YH, et al. Influence of age on symptoms at presentation in patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:1453–9.
Seppa Y, Bloigu A, Honkanen PO, Miettinen L, Syrjala H. Severity assessment of lower respiratory tract infection in elderly patients in primary care. Arch Intern Med. 2001;161:2709–13.
Wipf JE, Lipsky BJ, Hirschmann JV, et al. Diagnosing pneumonia by physical examination. Relevant or relic? Arch Intern Med. 1999;59:1082–7.
Dumyati G, Falsey AR. Antivirals for influenza. What is their role in the older patient? Drugs Aging. 2002;19:777–86.
Bloivin G, Hardy I, Tellier G, Mazaide J. Predicting influenza infections during epidemics with use of a clinical case definition. Clin Inf Dis. 2003;31:1166–9.
Walsh EE, Cox C, Falsey AR. Clinical features of influenza A virus infection in older hospitalized persons. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2002;50:1498–503.
Neuzil KM, O’Connor TZ, Gorse GJ, Nichol KL. Recognizing influenza in older patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease who have received influenza vaccine. Clin Inf Dis. 2003;36:169–74.
Irwin RS, Boulet LP, Cloutier MM, et al. Managing cough as a defense mechanism and as a symptom. A consensus panel report of the American College of Chest Physicians. Chest. 1998;114:133S-81S.
Williamson Jr HA. Pulmonary function tests in acute bronchitis: Evidence for reversible airflow obstruction. J Fam Pract. 1987;3:251–6.
Boldy DA, Skidmore SJ, Ayres JG. Acute bronchitis in the community: Clinical features, infective factors, changes in pulmonary function and bronchial reactivity to histamine. Respir Med. 1990;84:377–85.
Jonsson JS, Gislason T, Gislason D, Sigurdsson JA. Acute bronchitis and clinical outcome three years later: Prospective cohort study. BMJ. 1998;317:1433.
Metlay JP, Stafford RS, Singer DE. National trends in the use of antibiotics by primary care physicians for adult patients with cough. Arch Intern Med. 1998;158:1813–8.
Dosh SA, Hickner J, Mainous III AG, Ebell MH. Predictors of antibiotic prescribing for nonspecific upper respiratory infections, acute bronchitis, and acute sinusitis: An UPRNet study. J Fam Pract. 2000;49:407–14.
Hueston WJ, Hopper JE, Dacus EN, Mainous III AG. Why are antibiotics prescribed for patients with acute bronchitis? A postintervention analysis. J Am Board Fam Pract. 2000;13:398–402.
Linder JA, Sim I. Antibiotic treatment of acute bronchitis in smokers. A systematic review. J Gen Intern Med. 2002;17:230–4.
Gonzales R, Bartlett JG, Besser RE, et al. Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for treatment of uncomplicated acute bronchitis: Background. Ann Emerg Med. 2001;37:720–7.
Macfarlane J, Holmes W, Gard P, Thornhill D, Macfarlane R, Hubbard R. Reducing antibiotic use for acute bronchitis in primary care: blinded randomised controlled trial of patient information leaflet. BMJ. 2002;324:1–6.
Gonzales R, Steiner JF, Lum A, Barrett Jr PH. Decreasing antibiotic use in ambulatory practice. Impact of a multidimensional intervention on the treatment of uncomplicated acute bronchitis in adults. JAMA. 1999;281:1512–9.
Gonzales R, Steiner JF, Maselli J, Lum A, Barrett PH. Impact of reducing antibiotic prescribing for acute bronchitis on patient satisfaction. Eff Clin Pract. 2001;4:105–11.
Hueston WJ. A comparison of albuterol and erythromycin for the treatment of acute bronchitis. J Fam Pract. 1991;33:476–80.
Smucny JJ, Flynn CA, Becker LA, Glazier RH. Are β2-agonists effective treatment for acute bronchitis or acute cough in patients without underlying pulmonary disease? A systematic review. J Fam Pract. 2001;50:945–51.
Melbye H, Aasebo U, Straume B. Symptomatic effect of inhaled fenoterol in acute bronchitis: A placebo-controlled double-blind study. Fam Pract. 1991;8:216–22.
Sethi S, Murphy TF. Bacterial infection in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in 2000: A state-of-the-art review. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2001;14:336–63.
White AJ, Gompertz S, Stockley RA. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 6: The etiology of exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax. 2003;58:73–80.
Miravitlles M. Exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: When are bacteria important? Eur Respir J. 2002;20(Suppl 36):9S-19S.
Wilson R. Bacteria, antibiotics and COPD. Eur Respir J. 2001;17:995–1007.
Monso E, Ruiz J, Rosell A, et al. Bacterial infection in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: A study of stable and exacerbated outpatients using the protected specimen brush. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;152:1316–20.
Fagon JY, Chastre J, Trouillet JL, et al. Characterization of distal bronchial microflora during acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. Use of the protected specimen brush technique in 54 mechanically ventilated patients. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1990;142:1004–8.
Soler N, Torres A, Ewig S, et al. Bronchial microbial patterns in severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) requiring mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;157:1498–1505.
Pela R, Marchesani F, Agostinelli C, et al. Airways microbial flora in COPD patients in stable clinical conditions and during exacerbations: A bronchoscopic investigation. Monaldi Arch Chest Dis. 1998;53:262–7.
Zalacain R, Sobradillo V, Amilibia J, et al. Predisposing factors to bacterial colonization in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J. 1999;13:343–8.
Bandi V, Apicella MA, Mason E, et al. Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae in the lower respiratory tract of patients with chronic bronchitis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;164:2114–9.
Groeneveld K, Eijk PP, van Alphen L, Jansen HM, Zanen HC. Haemophilus influenzae infections in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease despite specific antibodies in serum and sputum. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1990;141:1316–21.
Yi K, Sethi S, Murphy TF. Human immune response to nontypable Haemophilus influenzae in chronic bronchitis. J Infect Dis. 1997;176:1247–52.
Patel IS, Seemungal TAR, Wilks M, Lloyd-Owen SJ, Donaldson GC, Wedzicha JA. Relationship between bacterial colonisation and the frequency, character, and severity of COPD exacerbations. Thorax. 2002;57:759–64.
Wilkinson TMA, Patel IS, Wilks M, Donaldson GC, Wedzicha JA. Airway bacterial load and FEV1 decline in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;167:1090–5.
Sethi S, Evans N, Grant BJB, Murphy TF. New strains of bacteria and exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:465–71.
Stockley RA, O’Brien C, Pye A, Hill SL. Relationship of sputum color to nature and outpatient management of acute exacerbations of COPD. Chest. 2000;117:1638–45.
Aaron SD, Angel JB, Lunua M, et al. Granulocyte inflammatory markers and airway infection during acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;163:349–55.
Saetta M, Di Stefano A, Maestrelli P, et al. Airway eosinophilia in chronic bronchitis during exacerbations. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;150:1646–52.
Balbi B, Bason C, Balleari E, et al. Increased bronchoalveolar granulocytes and granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor during exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Eur Respir J. 1997;10:846–50.
Bhowmik A, Seemungal TAR, Sapsford RJ, Wedzicha JA. Relation of sputum inflammatory markers to symptoms and lung function changes in COPD exacerbations. Thorax. 2000;55:114–20.
Gompertz S, O’Brien C, Bayley DL, Hill SL, Stockley RA. Changes in bronchial inflammation during acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Eur Respir J. 2001;17:1112–9.
Hill AT, Campbell EJ, Hill SL, Bayley DL, Stockley RA. Association between airway bacterial load and markers of airway inflammation in patients with stable chronic bronchitis. Am J Med. 2000;109:288–95.
Soler N, Ewig S, Torres A, Filella X, Gonzalez J, Zaubet A. Airway inflammation and bronchial microbial patterns in patients with stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J. 1999;14:1015–22.
Bresser P, Out TA, van Alphen L, Jansen HM, Lutter R. Airway inflammation in nonobstructive and obstructive chronic bronchitis with chronic Haemophilus influenzae airway infection. Comparison with noninfected patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162:947–52.
Sethi S, Muscarella K, Evans N, Klingman KL, Grant BJB, Murphy TF. Airway inflammation and etiology of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Chest. 2000;118: 1557–65.
Bresser P, van Alphen L, Habets F J, et al. Persisting Haemophilus influenzae strains induce, lower levels of interleukin-6 and interleukin-8 in H292 lung epithelial cells than nonpersisting strains. Eur Respir J. 1997;10:2319–26.
Hill AT, Campbell EJ, Bayley DL, Hill SL, Stockley RA. Evidence for excessive bronchial inflammation during an acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in patients with α1-antitrypsin deficiency (PiZ). Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;160:1968–75.
Miravitlles M, Espinosa C, Fernandez-Laso E, et al., and Study Group of Bacterial Infection in COPD. Relationship between bacterial flora in sputum and functional impairment in patients with acute exacerbations of COPD. Chest. 1999;116:40–6.
Eller J, Ede A, Schaberg T, Niederman M, Mauch H, Lode H. Infective exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Relation between bacteriologic etiology and lung function. Chest. 1998;113:1542–8.
O’Brien C, Guest PJ, Hill SL, Stockley RA. Physiological and radiological characterisation of patients diagnosed with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in primary care. Thorax. 2000;55:635–42.
Blasi F, Damato S, Cosentini R, et al. Group Chlamydia InterAction with COPD (CIAC) Study. Chlamydia pneumoniae and chronic bronchitis: Association with severity and bacterial clearance following treatment. Thorax. 2002;57: 672–6.
Lieberman D, Ben-Yaakov M, Lazarovich Z, Ohana B, Boldur I. Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Analysis of 250 hospitalizations. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2001;20: 698–704.
Karnak D, Beng-sun S, Beder S, Kayacan O, Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Respir Med. 2001;95:811–6.
Mogulkoc N, Karakurt S, Isalska B, et al. Acute purulent exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and Chlamydia pneumoniae infection. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;160:349–53.
Wedzicha JA. Exacerbations. Etiology and pathophysiologic mechanisms. Chest. 2002;121:136S-41S.
Seemungal T, Harper-Owen R, Bhowmik A, et al. Respiratory viruses, symptoms, and inflammatory markers in acute exacerbations and stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;164:1618–23.
Seemungal TA, Harper-Owen R, Bhowmik A, Jeffries DJ, Wedzicha JA. Detection of rhinovirus in induced sputum at exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J. 2000;16:677–83.
Seemungal TA, Wedzicha JA. Viral infections in obstructive airway disease. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2003;9:111–6.
American Thoracic Society. Standards for the diagnosis and care of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;152:S77-S120.
Sohy C, Pilette C, Niederman MS, Sibile Y. Acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and antibiotics: what studies are still-needed? Eur Respir J. 2002;19: 966–75.
Rodrigues-Roisin R. Toward a consensus definition for COPD exacerbations. Chest. 2000;117:398S-401S.
Seemungal TAR, Donaldson GC, Bhowmik A, Jeffries DJ, Wedzicha JA. Time course and recovery of exacerbations in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;161:1608–13.
Emerman CL, Cydulka RK. Evaluation of high-yield criteria for chest radiography in acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Ann Emerg Med. 1993;22: 780–4.
Sherman S, Skoney JA, Ravikrishnan KP. Routine chest radiographs in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Diagnostic value. Arch Intern Med. 1989; 149:2493–6.
Tsai TW, Gallagher EJ, Lombardi G, Gennis P, Carter W. Guidelines for the selective ordering of admission chest radiography in adult obstructive airway disease. Ann Emerg Med. 1993;22:1854–8.
Bach PB, Brown C, Gelfand SE, McCroy DC. Management of acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: A summary and appraisal of published evidence. Ann Intern Med. 2001;134:600–20.
Snow V, Lascher S, Mottur-Pielson C. Evidence base for management of acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Ann Intern Med. 2001;134:595–9.
Saint S, Bent S, Vittinghoff E, Grady D. Antibiotics in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations. A metaanalysis. JAMA. 1995;273:957–60.
Nouira S, Marghli S, Belghith M, Besbes L, Elatrous S, Abrough F. Once daily oral ofloxacin in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbation, requiring mechanical ventilation: A randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2001; 358:2020–5.
Allegra L, Blasi F, de Bernardi B, Cosentini R, Tarsia P. Antibiotic treatment and baseline severity or disease in acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: A re-evaluation of previously published data of a placebo-controlled randomized study. Pulm Pharmaco Therapeut. 2001;14:149–55.
Anthonisen N, Manfreda J, Warren C, Hersfield E, Harding G, Nelson N. Antibiotic therapy in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Ann Int Med. 1987;106:196–204.
Adams SG, Melo J, Luther M, Anzueto A. Antibiotics are associated with lower relapse rates in outpatients with acute exacerbations of COPD. Chest. 2000;117:1345–52.
Niroumand M, Grossman R. Airway infection. Infect Dis Clin N Am. 1998;12:671–88.
Miravitlles M, Murio C., Guerrero T, Factors associated with relapse after ambulatory treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. DAFNE Study Group. Eur Respir J. 2001;17:928–33.
Seemungal TAR, Donaldson GC, Paul EA, Bestall JC, Jeffries DJ, Wedzicha JA. Effect of exacerbation on quality of life in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;157:1418–22.
Saint S, Flaherty KR, Abrahamse P, Martinez FJ, Fendrick AM. Acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: Disease-specific issues that influence the cost-effectiveness of antimicrobial therapy. Clin Ther. 2001;23:499–512.
Ball P, Harris J, Lowson D, Tillotson G, Wilson R. Acute infective exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Q J Med. 1995; 88:61–8.
Sethi S. Etiology and management of infection in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Clin Pulm Med. 1999;6:327–32.
Anzueto AR. Risk stratification in acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: When and how to treat. Consultant. 2002;41(Suppl 12):S5–12.
Flaherty KR, Saint S, Fendrick AM, Martinez FJ. The spectrum of acute bronchitis: Using baseline factors to guide empirical therapy. Postgrad Med. 2001;109:39–47.
Niederman MS. Antimicrobial therapy for acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: A critical path and consensus. Consultant. 2002;42(Suppl 12):S39–44.
Dewan NA, Rafique S, Kanwar B, et al. Acute exacerbation of COPD: Factors associated with poor treatment outcome. Chest. 2000;117:662–71.
Shah PM, Maesen FPV, Domann A, Vetter N, Fiss E, Wesch R. Levofloxacin versus cefuroxime axetil in the treatment of acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis: Results of a randomized, double-blind study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1999; 43:529–39.
Wilson R, Kubin R, Ballin I, et al. Five day moxifloxacin therapy compared with 7 day clarithromycin therapy for the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1999;44:501–13.
Martinez FJ. The impact of antimicrobial selection on AECB: Resistance patterns of common respiratory pathogens. Consultant. 2002;42(Suppl 12):S33–8.
Doern GV. Antimicrobial use and the emergency of antimicrobial resistance with Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States. Clin Inf Dis. 2001;33(Suppl 3):S187–92.
Seaton RA, Steinke DT, Phillips G, MacDonald T, Davey PG. Community antibiotic therapy, hospitialization and subsequent respiratory tract isolation of Haemophilus influenzae resistance to amoxycillin: A nested case-control study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2000;46:307–9.
Thornsberry C, Sahm DF, Kelly LJ, et al. Regional trends in antimicrobial resistance among clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumomiae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis in the United States: Results from the TRUST surveillance program, 1999–2000. Clin Inf Dis. 2002;34(Suppl 1):S4-S16.
Lynch III JP, Martinez FJ. Clinical relevance of macrolide-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae for community acquired pneumonia. Clin Inf Dis. 2002;34(Suppl 1):S27–46.
Hyde TB, Gay K, Stephens DS, et al. Macrolide resistance among invasive Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates. JAMA. 2001;285:1857–62.
Blondeau JM. A review or the comparative in-vitro activities of 12 antimicrobial agents, with a focus on five new ‘respiratory quinolones’. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1999;43(Suppl B):1–11.
Thomson KS, Chartrand SA, Sanders CC, Block SL. In-vitro activity of levofloxacin against Streptococcus pneumoniae with various levels of penicillin resistance. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1999;43(Suppl C):15–9.
Ho PL, Yung RWH, Tsang DNC, et al. Increasing resistance of Streptococcus pneumoniae to fluoroquinolones: Results of a Hong Kong multicenter study in 2000. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2001;48:659–65.
Chen DK, McGeer A, De Azavedo JC, Low DE, Network The Canadian Bacterial Surveillance. Decreased susceptibility of Streptococcus pneumoniae to fluoroquinolones in Canada. N Engl J Med. 1999;341:233–9.
Brueggemann AB, Coffman SL, Rhomberg P, et al. Fluoquinolone resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae in United States since 1994–1995. Antimicrob Agent Chemother. 2002; 46:680–8.
Daily P, Gelling L, Rothrock G, et al. Resistance of Streptococcus pneumoniae to fluoroquinolones—United States, 1995–1999. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2001;50:800–4.
Ho PL, Tse WS, Tsang KWT, et al. Risk factors for acquisition of levofloxacin-resistance Streptococcus pneumoniae: A case-control study. Clin Inf Dis. 2001;32:701–7.
Doern GV, Jones RN, Pfaller MA, Kugler K, The SENTRY Participants Group. Haemophilus influenzae and Moraxella catarrhalis from patients with community-acquired respiratory tract infections: Antimicrobial susceptibility patterns from the SENTRY antimicrobial surveillance program (United States and Canada, 1997). J Antimicrob Chemother. Antimicrob Agent Chemother. 1999;43:385–9.
Richter SS, Brueggemann AB, Huynh HK, et al. A 1997–1998 national surveillance study: Moraxella catarrhalis and Haemophilus influenzae antimicrobial resistance in 34 US insitutions. Int J Antimicrob Agent. 1999;13:99–107.
Zhanel GG, Karlowsky JA, Low DE, Hoban DJ. Antibiotic resistance in respiratory tract isolates of Haemophilus influenzae and Moraxella catarrhalis collected from across Canada in 1997–1998. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2000;45:655–62.
Murphy TF, Sethi S, Klingman KL, Brueggemann AB, Doern GV. Simultaneous respiratory tract colonization by multiple strains of nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Implications for antibiotic therapy. J Infect Dis. 1999;180:404–9.
Verduin CM, Hol C, Fleer A, van Belkum A. Moraxella catarrhalis: From emerging to established pathogen. Clin Microbial Rev. 2002;15:125–44.
Pechere JC, Lacey L. Optimizing economic outcomes in antibiotic therapy of patients with acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2000;45: 19–24.
Madaras-Kelly KJ, Magdanz SB, Johnson CK, Jue SG. Clinical outcomes of ambulatory acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis with older versus newer antimicrobials. Ann Pharmacother. 2002;36:975–80.
Wilson R, Schentag JJ, Ball P, Mandell L. A comparison of gemifloxacin and clarithromycin in acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis and long-term clinical outcomes. Clin Ther. 2002;24:639–52.
Weiss K, Restieri C, Gauthier R, et al. A nosocomial outbreak of fluoroquinolone-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Clin Inf Dis. 2001;33:517–22.
DeAbate CA, Russell M, McElvaine P, et al. Safety and efficacy of oral levofloxacin versus cefuroxime axetil in acute bacterial exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. Respir Care. 1997;42:206–13.
Habib MP, Gentry LO, Rodriguez-Gomez G, et al. Multicenter, randomized study comparing efficacy and safety of oral levofloxacin and cefaclor in treatment of acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Infect Dis Clin Pract. 1998;7:101–9.
Anzuelo A, Niederman MS, Tillotson GS, Bronchitis Study Group. Etiology, susceptibility, and treatment of acute bacterial exacerbations of complicated chronic bronchitis in the primary care setting: Ciprofloxacin 750 mg bid versus clarithromycin 500 mg bid. Clin Ther. 1998;20:835–50.
Chodosh S, Schreurs A, Siami G, et al., and Group Bronchitis Study. Efficacy of oral ciprofloxacin vs clarithromycin for treatment of acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Clin Inf Dis. 1998;27:730–8.
Grossman R, Mukherjee J, Vaughan D, et al. A 1-year community-based health economic study of ciprofloxacin vs usual antibiotic treatment in acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. The Canadian Ciprofloxacin Health Economic Study Group. Chest. 1998;113:131–41.
Torrance G, Walker V, Grossman R, et al. Economic evaluation of ciprofloxacin compared with usual antibacterial care for the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis in patients followed for 1 year. Pharmacoeconomics. 1999; 16:499–520.
Destache CJ, Dewan N, O’Donohue WJ, Campbell JC, Angelillo VA. Clinical and economic considerations in the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1999;43(Suppl A):107–113.
Stoller JK. Acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:988–94.
McCroy DC, Brown C, Gelfand SE, Bach PB. Management of exacerbations of COPD: A summary and appraisal of the published evidence. Chest. 2001;119:1190–209.
Singh JM, Palda VA, Stanbrook MB, Chapman KR. Corticosteroid therapy for patients with acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A systematic review. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162:2527–36.
Niewoehner DE, Erbland ML, Deupree RH, et al., and Department of Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study Group. Effect of systemic glucocorticoids on exacerbationsis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 1999; 340:1941–7.
Sayner A, Aytemur AZ, Cirit M, Unsal I. Systemic glucocorticoids in severe exacerbations of COPD. Chest. 2001;119: 726–30.
Davies L, Nisar M, Pearson MG, Costello RW, Earis JE, Calverley PMA. Oral corticosteroid trials in the management of stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Q J Med. 1999;92:395–400.
Maltais F, Ostinelli J, Bourbeau J, et al. Comparison of nebulized budesonide and oral prednisolone with placebo in the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: A randomized controlled trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;165:698–703.
Sethi S. Infectious exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: diagnosis and management. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1999;43: (Suppl A):97–105.
Dere WH. Acute bronchitis: Results of U.S. and European trials of antibiotic therapy. Am J Med. 1992;92 (Suppl 6A): 53S-7S.
Jonsson JS, Sigurdsson JA, Kristinsson KG, Guthnadottir M, Magnusson S. Acute bronchitis in adults. How close do we come to its aetiology in general practice? Scand J Prim Health Care. 1997;15:156–60.
Ball P. Epidemiology and treatment of chronic bronchitis and its exacerbations. Chest. 1995;108:43S-52S.
Gwaltney Jr JM. Acute bronchitis. In: G. Mandell, J. Bennett and R. Dolin, editors. Mandell: Principles and Practice of Infectious Disease, 5th ed. Philadelphia; Churchill Livingstone, 2000:703–6.
Kaiser L, Lew D, Hirschel B, et al. Effects of antibiotic, treatment in the subset of common-cold patients who have bacteria in nasopharyngeal secretions. Lancet. 1996;347:1507–10.
Falck G, Heyman L, Gnarpe J, Gnarpe H. Chlamydia Pneumoniae (TWAR): A common agent in acute bronchitis. Scand J Infect Dis. 1994;26:179–87.
Buscho RO, Saxtan D, Shultz PS, Finch E, Mufson MA. Infections with viruses and Mycoplasma pneumoniae during exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. J Infect Dis. 1978;137:377–83.
Smith CB, Goldern CA, Kanner RE, Renzetti AD. Association of viral and Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections with acute respiratory illness in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1980;121:225–32.
Herwaldt LA. Pertussis in adults: What physicians need to know. Arch Intern Med. 1991;151:1510–2.
Falsey AR, McCann RM, Hall WJ, et al. The “common cold” in frail older persons: Impact of rhinovirus and coronavirus in a senior daycare center. JAGS. 1997;45:706–11.
Hendley JO, Fishburne HB, Swaltney JM. Coronavirus infections in working adults: Eight-year study with 229 E and OC 43. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1972;105:805–11.
Greenberg SB, Allen M, Wilson J, Atmar RL. Respiratory viral infections in adults with and without chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000; 162:167–73.
Rhode G, Wiethege A, Borg I, et al. Respiratory viruses in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease requiring hospitalisation: A case-control study. Thorax. 2003; 58:37–42.
Seemungal TA, Wedzicha JA, MacCallum PK, Johnston SL, Lambert PA. Chlamydia pneumoniae and COPD exacerbation. Thorax. 2002;57:1087–8; author reply 1088–9.
Fahey T, Stocks N, Thomas T. Quantitative systematic review of randomised controlled trials comparing antibiotic with placebo for acute cough in adults. BMJ. 1998;316:906–10.
Smucny JJ, Becker LA, Glazier RH, McIsaac, W. Are antibiotics effective treatment for acute bronchitis? A meta-analysis. J Fam Pract. 1998;47:453–60.
Bent S, Saint S, Vittinghoff E, Grady D. Antibiotics in acute bronchitis: A metal-analysis. Am J Med. 1999;07:62–7.
Evans AT, Husain S, Durairaj L, Sadowski LS, Charles-Damte M, Wang Y. Azithromycin for acute bronchitis: A randomised, double-blind, controlled trial. Lancet. 2002;359; 1648–54.
Lode H. Respiratory tract infections: When is antibiotic therapy indicated? Clin Ther. 1991;13:149–56.
Hueston W J. Albuterol delivered by metered-dose inhaler to treat acute bronchitis. J Fam Pract. 1994;39.
Grossman R. Guidelines for the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Chest. 1997;112(Suppl 6): 311S-3S.
Wilson R. Outcome predictors in bronchitis. Chest. 1995;106 (Suppl):53S-57S.
Adams SG, Anzueto A. Antibiotic therapy in acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: Part 1. The rationale. Pulm Perspect. 2002;19:6–8.
Adams SG, Anzueto A. Antibiotic therapy in acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: Part 2. Pul Perspect. 2002;19:1–5.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
The author has stated that he does not have a significant financial interest or other relationship with any product manufacturer or provider of services discussed in this article. The author also does not discuss the use of off-label products, which includes unlabeled, unapproved, or investigative products or devices.
About this article
Cite this article
Martinez, F.J. Acute bronchitis: State of the art diagnosis and therapy. Compr Ther 30, 55–69 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12019-004-0025-z
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12019-004-0025-z