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Trace elements in Foodstuffs from the Mediterranean Basin—Occurrence, Risk Assessment, Regulations, and Prevention strategies: A review

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Abstract

Trace elements (TEs) are chemical compounds that naturally occur in the earth’s crust and in living organisms at low concentrations. Anthropogenic activities can significantly increase the level of TEs in the environment and finally enter the food chain. Toxic TEs like cadmium, lead, arsenic, and mercury have no positive role in a biological system and can cause harmful effects on human health. Ingestion of contaminated food is a typical route of TEs intake by humans. Recent data about the occurrence of TEs in food available in the Mediterranean countries are considered in this review. Analytical methods are also discussed. Furthermore, a discussion of existing international agency regulations will be given. The risk associated with the dietary intake of TEs was estimated by considering consumer exposure and threshold values such as Benchmark dose lower confidence limit and provisional tolerable weekly intake established by the European Food Safety Authority and the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, respectively. Finally, several remediation approaches to minimize TE contamination in foodstuffs were discussed including chemical, biological, biotechnological, and nanotechnological methods. The results of this study proved the occurrence of TEs contamination at high levels in vegetables and fish from some Mediterranean countries. Lead and cadmium are more abundant in foodstuffs than other toxic trace elements. Geographical variations in TE contamination of food crops clearly appear, with a greater risk in developing countries. There is still a need for the regular monitoring of these toxic element levels in food items to ensure consumer protection.

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Abbreviations

AAS:

Atomic Absorption Spectrometry

ADI:

Acceptable Daily Intake

ATSDR:

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

As:

Arsenic

B:

Boron

BMDL:

Benchmark dose lower confidence limit

Cd:

Cadmium

Co:

Cobalt

Cr:

Chromium

Cu:

Copper

CV-AAS:

Cold Vapor Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy

EC:

European Commission

EFSA:

European Food Safety Authority

EDTA:

Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid

EU:

European Union

F-AAS:

Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy

FAO:

Food and Agriculture Organization

Fe:

Iron

GF-AAS:

Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy

Hg:

Mercury

HG-AAS:

Hydride Generation Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy

IARC:

International Agency for Research on Cancer

ICP-AES:

Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry

ICP-MS:

Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrophotometer

ICP-OES:

Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry

In-As:

Inorganic arsenic

INAA:

Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis

JECFA:

Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives

MeHg+ :

Methyl mercury

MLs:

Maximum limits

Mn:

Manganese

MRLs:

Minimum risk levels

Ni:

Nickel

Pb:

Lead

PTMI:

Provisional Tolerable Monthly Intake

PTWI:

Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake

RASFF:

Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed

ROS:

Reactive oxygen species

Sb:

Antimony

Sr:

Strontium

TDI:

Tolerable Daily Intake

TEs:

Trace elements

TWI:

Tolerable Weekly Intake

UNESCO:

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

WHO:

World Health Organization

XRF:

X-ray fluorescence

Zn:

Zinc

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  1. Laboratory of Applied Chemistry of Materials, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Faculty of Sciences, Avenue Ibn Battouta BP.1014 Agdal, Rabat, Morocco

    Mourad El Youssfi & Abdelaziz Laghzizil

  2. Laboratory of Nanomaterials, Nanotechnologies and Environment, Center of Materials, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Faculty of Sciences, Avenue Ibn Battouta, BP.1014, 10000, Rabat, Morocco

    Mourad El Youssfi, Aicha Sifou, Said Arsalane & Mohammed Halim

  3. Laboratory of Food Toxicology, National Institute of Hygiene (INH), BP 769 Agdal, 27, Avenue Ibn Batouta, Rabat, Morocco

    Rachid Ben Aakame & Naima Mahnine

  4. BIOMARE Laboratory, Chouaib Doukkali University, Faculty of Sciences, Route Ben Maachou, PO Box 20, 24000, El Jadida, Morocco

    Abdellah Zinedine

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El Youssfi, M., Sifou, A., Ben Aakame, R. et al. Trace elements in Foodstuffs from the Mediterranean Basin—Occurrence, Risk Assessment, Regulations, and Prevention strategies: A review. Biol Trace Elem Res 201, 2597–2626 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-022-03334-z

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