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Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Induced by Toxic Elements—a Review of Recent Developments

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Abstract

Endoplasmic reticulum of all eukaryotic cells is a membrane-bound organelle. Under electron microscope it appears as parallel arrays of “rough membranes” and a maze of “smooth vesicles” respectively. It performs various functions in cell, i.e., synthesis of proteins to degradation of xenobiotics. Bioaccumulation of drugs/chemicals/xenobiotics in the cytosol can trigger ER stress. It is recognized by the accumulation of unfolded or misfolded proteins in the lumen of ER. Present review summarizes the present status of knowledge on ER stress caused by toxic elements, viz arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, copper, chromium, and nickel. While inorganic arsenic may induce various glucose-related proteins, i.e., GRP78, GRP94 and CHOP, XBP1, and calpains, cadmium upregulates GRP78. Antioxidants like ascorbic acid, NAC, and Se inhibit the expression of UPR. Exposure to lead also changes ER stress related genes, i.e., GRP 78, GRP 94, ATF4, and ATF6. Mercury too upregulates these genes. Nickel, a carcinogenic element upregulates the expression of Bak, cytochrome C, caspase-3, caspase-9, caspase-12, and GADD 153. Much is not known on ER stress caused by nanoparticles. The review describes inter-organelle association between mitochondria and ER. It also discusses the interdependence between oxidative stress and ER stress. A cross talk amongst different cellular components appears essential to disturb pathways leading to cell death. However, these molecular switches within the signaling network used by toxic elements need to be identified. Nevertheless, ER stress especially caused by toxic elements still remains to be an engaging issue.

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Abbreviations

ER:

Endoplasmic reticulum

ER stress:

Endoplasmic reticulum stress

UPR:

Unfolded protein response

IRE1:

Inositol requiring kinase 1

elf2alpha:

Initiation factor 2 alpha

PERK:

PKR-like kinase

ATF:

Activating transcription factor

Bip:

Binding protein

GRP78:

Glucose-regulated protein 78

ERAD:

ER-associated degradation

PDI:

Protein disulfide isomerise

ROS:

Reactive oxygen species

FAD:

Flavin adenine nucleotide

ERO1:

Endoplasmic reticulum oxidoreduction 1

ATO:

Arsenic trioxide

GRP94:

Glucose-related protein 94

CHOP:

C/EBP homologous protein

XBP1:

X-box binding protein

GSIS:

Glucose-stimulated insulin secretion

GJIC:

Gap junctional intercellular communication

NOX4:

NADPH oxidase 4

MFO:

Mixed function oxidase

NAC:

N-acetyl cysteine

Se:

Selenium

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Acknowledgments

Financial support from Indian Science Congress Association, Kolkata (India), in the form of Ashutosh Mookerjee Fellowship to the author is gratefully acknowledged. The author is also thankful to the Head of the Department of Toxicology, Ch. Charan Singh University, Meerut (India), for extending the technical and administrative support.

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    S. V. S. Rana

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Rana, S.V.S. Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Induced by Toxic Elements—a Review of Recent Developments. Biol Trace Elem Res 196, 10–19 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-019-01903-3

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