Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Blood Lead Levels in Schoolchildren Living Near an Industrial Zone in Cali, Colombia: The Role of Socioeconomic Condition

  • Published:
Biological Trace Element Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study aimed to determine Blood Lead Levels (BLL) in schoolchildren 6–14 years old exposed to industrial sources of lead and evaluated the role of socioeconomic condition. A cross-sectional study was conducted in an area likely to be exposed to industrial pollutants in northern Cali (i.e., distance and wind direction) and in a “non-exposed” area. In children in two schools of corresponding study areas, venous samples (5 ml) were collected to determine BLL by graphite furnace absorption spectrometry. Using regression models, we evaluated the association between risk factors to BLL and the effect of modification with variables of socioeconomic condition. We enrolled 350 schoolchildren. Schoolchildren in the exposed area had higher prevalence of BLL of ≥5 μg/dl (44.2 vs. 8.2 %, p = 0.000) than those in non-exposed area. A positive association was found between exposure and BLL of ≥5 μg/dl (prevalence ratios (PR), 6.68; 95 % confidence interval (95 % CI), 3.95, 11.29). Demographic characteristics and socioeconomic condition such as age (PR, 1.45; 95 % CI, 1.03, 2.04), sex (PR, 1.84; 95 % CI, 1.30, 2.60), race (PR, 2.32; 95 % CI, 1.39, 3.89) and socioeconomic position (SEP; PR, 2.02; 95 % CI, 1.35, 3.04) were statistically significant and independently associated with BLL. There was a synergistic interaction between exposure to the industrial zone and SEP for higher BLL (coefficient, 0.80; 95 % CI, 0.17, 1.43). Residence in the northern urban area of Cali exposed to pollutants of an industrial zone is associated to an increased risk of higher BLL, especially among children from low SEC who are at greater risk of exposure and susceptibility.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Meyer PA, Pivetz T, Dignam TA, Homa DM, Schoonover J, Brody D (2003) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Surveillance for elevated blood lead levels among children—United States, 1997–2001. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep Surveill Summ 52(10):1–21

    Google Scholar 

  2. Iqbala S, Muntnerb P, Batumanc V, Rabitoa F (2008) Estimated burden of blood lead levels ×5 mg/dl in 1999–2002 and declines from 1988 to 1994. Environ Res 107:305–311

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Olivero-Verbel J, Duarte D, Echenique M, Guette J, Johnson-Restrepo B, Parsons P (2007) Blood lead levels in children aged 5–9 years living in Cartagena, Colombia. Sci Total Environ 372:707–716

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Miranda ML, Kim D, Galeano MAO, Paul CJ, Hull AP, Morgan SP (2007) The relationship between early childhood blood lead levels and performance on end-of-grade tests. Environ Health Perspect 115(8):1242

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Norman R, Mathee A, Barnes B, van der Merwe L, Bradshaw D (2007) Estimating the burden of disease attributable to lead exposure in South Africa in 2000. S Afr Med J 97:773–80

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Surkan PJ, Zhang A, Trachtenberg F, Daniel D, Sonja McKinlay, Bellinger DC (2007) Neuropsychological function in children with blood lead levels <10 μg/dl. Neurotoxicology 28:1170–77

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Wang Q, Zhao HH, Chen JW, Gu KD, Zhang YZ, Zhu YX, Zhou YK, Ye LX (2009) Adverse health effects of lead exposure on children and exploration to internal lead indicator. Sci Total Environ 407:5986–5992

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Canfield RL, Henderson CR, Cory-Slechta DA, Cox C, Jusko TA, Lanphear BP (2003) Intellectual impairment in children with blood lead concentrations below 10 microg per deciliter. N Engl J Med 348(16):1517–26

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Lanphear BP, Hornung R, Khoury J, Yolton K, Baghurst P, Bellinger DC (2005) Low-level environmental lead exposure and children’s intellectual function: an international pooled analysis. Environ Health Perspect 113:894–899

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Bernard SM (2003) Should the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s childhood lead poisoning intervention level be lowered? Am J Public Health 93:1253–60

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Reisa F, Sampaioa C, Brantesa A, Anicetoa P, Melimb M, Cardosob L et al (2007) Human exposure to heavy metals in the vicinity of Portuguese solid waste incinerators—part 3: biomonitoring of Pb in blood of children under the age of 6 years. Int J Hyg Environ Health 210:455–459

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Farias P, Boria-Aburto V, Rios C, Hertz-Picciotto I, Rojas-Lopez M, Chavez-Ayala R (1996) Blood lead levels in pregnant women of high and low socioeconomic status in Mexico City. Environ Health Perspect 104(10):1070–1074

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. O’Neill M, Jerrett M, Kawachi I, Levy J, Cohen A, Gouveia N, Wilkinson P, Fletcher T, Cifuentes L, Schwartz J (2003) Health, wealth, and air pollution: advancing theory and methods. Environ Health Perspect 111(16):1861–1870

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. U.S Environmental Protections Agency. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAGS). http://www.epa.gov/air/criteria.html.

  15. Miller DT, Paschal DC, Gunter EW, Stroud PE, D’Agelo J (1987) Determination of lead in blood using electrothermal atomisation atomic absorption spectrometry, a L’vov platform and matrix modifier. Analyst 112:1701–1704

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Barros A, Hirakata N (2003) Alternatives for logistic regression in cross-sectional studies: an empirical comparison of models that directly estimate the prevalence ratio. BMC Med Res Methodol 3:21–46

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Coutinho L, Scazufca M, Menezes P (2008) Methods for estimating prevalence ratios in cross-sectional studies. Rev Saude Publica 42(6):1–6

    Google Scholar 

  18. James L, Seng-Tan C, Seng-Chia K (2009) A practical guide for multivariate analysis of dichotomous outcomes. Annals Academy of Medicine 38(8):714–719

    Google Scholar 

  19. CDC (2007) Lead exposure among females of childbearing age—United States, 2004. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 56(16):397–400

    Google Scholar 

  20. Advisory Committee on Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention (2012) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2012). Low level lead exposure harms children: a renewed call for primary prevention. CDC, Atlanta, GA

    Google Scholar 

  21. Morales L, Gutierrez P, Escarce J (2005) Demographic and Socioeconomic factors associated with blood lead levels among Mexican-American children and adolescents in the United States. Public Health Rep 120:448–454

    Google Scholar 

  22. Lalor G, Vutchkov M, Bryan S (2007) Blood lead levels of Jamaican children island-wide. Sci Total Environ 374(2–3):235–241

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Wang S, Zhang J (2006) Blood lead levels in children, China. Environ Res 101:412–418

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Rajkumar W, Manohar J, Doon R, Siung-Chang A, Chang-Yen I, Monteil M (2006) Blood lead levels in primary school children in Trinidad and Tobago. Sci Total Environ 361:81–87

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Rojas M, Espinosa C, Seijas D (2003) Asociación entre plomo en sangre y parámetros sociodemográficos en población infantil. Rev Saude Publica 37(4):503–509

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Been V (1993) What’s fairness got to do with it? Environmental justice and the siting of locally undesirable land uses. Cornell Law Rev 78:1001–1036

    Google Scholar 

  27. Pulido L (2000) Rethinking environmental racism: white privilege and urban development in Southern California. Ann Assoc Am Geogr 90:12–40

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Lanphear BP, Hornung R, Ho M, Howard CR, Eberly S, Knauf K (2002) Environ lead exposure during early childhood. J Pediatr 140:40–7 [published correction appears in J Pediatr. 2002; 140:490]

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Special thanks to schoolchildren living in the study areas for participating and provide valuable information. Additionally, special thanks to the Ministry of Environment (Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial) for funding support of this project and the regional and local environmental and health authorities for participating in this project.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest in conducting this research.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Epidemiology and Population Health Group, School of Public Health, University of Valle, Calle 4B No. 36-140, Edificio 118, Barrio San Fernando, Cali, Valle del Cauca, Colombia

    Paola Andrea Filigrana & Fabián Méndez

Authors
  1. Paola Andrea Filigrana
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Fabián Méndez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Paola Andrea Filigrana.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Filigrana, P.A., Méndez, F. Blood Lead Levels in Schoolchildren Living Near an Industrial Zone in Cali, Colombia: The Role of Socioeconomic Condition. Biol Trace Elem Res 149, 299–306 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-012-9429-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-012-9429-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation