Abstract
Our aim for carrying out this study was to estimate the levels of mercury in the hair of pregnant women and its association with fish consumption and amalgam fillings. From November 2007 to January 2008, 100 hair samples were collected randomly from three groups of pregnant women: Ahvaz in the south of Iran, Noushahr in the north, and the countryside of Noushahr. Significant differences were found in these three groups of pregnant women’s samples (p > 0.05). The mean mercury level in women’s hair was found to be 0.37 μg/g (range, 0.11–3.57 μg/g). Only in 2 % of collected hair samples did the total mercury (THg) level exceed the United States Environmental Protection Agency-recommended 1.0 μg/g. In addition, there was a positive correlation of THg content in Ahvaz group’s samples with respect to fish consumption (r = 0.41, p = 0.02) and a negative correlation of THg content in those who consumed vegetables and fruit. The level of education also played an indicating factor in this group. Moreover, significant association was found between the residence time and Hg concentration of women’s hair samples collected from Noushahr (p > 0.05). Similarly, the same correlations were found between hair mercury levels and the time since the first filling, number of dental fillings, pregnancy interval, and lactating period.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Malm O, Branches FJP, Akagi H, Castro MB, Pfeiffer WC, Harada M, Bastos WR, Kato H (1995) Mercury and methylmercury in fish and human hair from the Tapajos river basin, Brazil. Sci Total Environ 175:141–150
Malm O (1998) Gold mining as a source of mercury exposure in the Brazilian Amazon. Environ Res 77:73–78
Grandjean P, White RF, Nielsen A, Cleary D, Santos ECD (1999) Methylmercury neurotoxicity in Amazonian children downstream from gold mining. Environ Health Perspect 107:587–591
Guimaraes JRD, Fostier AH, Forti MC, Melfi JA, Kehrig H, Mauro JBN, Malm O, Krug JF (1999) Mercury in human and environmental samples from two lakes in Amapa, Brazilian Amazon. Ambio 28:296–301
McDowell MA, Dillon CF, Osterloh J, Bolger PM, Pellizzari E, Fernando R, Montes de Oca R, Susan E, Schober SE, Sinks T, Jones RL, Mahaffey KR (2004) Hair mercury levels in U.S. children and women of childbearing age: reference range data from NHANES 1999–2000. Environ Health Perspect 112(11):1165–1171
Bates MN (2006) Mercury amalgam dental fillings: an epidemiologic assessment. Int J Hyg Environ Health 209:309–316
Clarkson TW, Magos L, Myers GJ (2003) Human exposure to mercury: the three modern dilemmas. J Trace Elem Expo Med 16:321–343
Factor-Litvak P, Hasselgren G, Jacobs D, Begg M, Kline J, Geier J, Mervish N, Schoenholtz S, Graziano J (2003) Mercury derived from dental amalgams and neuropsychologic function. Environ Health Perspect 111:719–723
Apostoli P, Cortesi I, Mangili A, Elia G, Drago I, Gagliardi T, Soleo L, Valente T, Sciarra GF, Aprea C, Ronchi A, Minoia C (2002) Assessment of reference values for mercury in urine: the results of an Italian polycentric study. Sci Total Environ 289:13–24
Johnsson C, Schutz A, Sallsten G (2005) Impact of consumption of freshwater fish on mercury levels in hair, blood, urine, and alveolar air. J Toxicol Environ Health A 68:129–140
Levy M, Schwartz S, Dijak M, Weber JP, Tardif R, Rouah F (2004) Childhood urine mercury excretion: dental amalgam and fish consumption as exposure factors. Environ Res 94:283–290
Ohno T, Sakamoto M, Kurosawa T, Dakeishi M, Iwata T, Murata K (2007) Total mercury levels in hair, toenail, and urine among women free from occupational exposure and their elations to renal tubular function. Environ Res 103:191–197
Passos CJS, Mergler D, Lemire M, Fillion M, Guimaraes JRD (2007) Fish consumption and bioindicators of inorganic mercury exposure. Sci Total Environ 373:68–76
National Research Council/National Academy of Sciences (NRC) (2000) Toxicological effects of methylmercury. Committee on the Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission on Life Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington
Clarkson TW (2002) The three modern faces of mercury. Environ Health Perspect 110(Suppl 1):11–23
US EPA (2001) Water quality criterion for the protection of human health: methyl mercury. EPA 0823-R-01-001, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
Sorenson N, Murata K, Budtz-Jorgensen E, Weihe P, Grandjean P (1999) Prenatal methylmercury exposure as a cardiovascular risk factor at 7 years of age. Epidemiology 10(4):370–375
WHO (1990) International programme on chemical safety. Environmental health criteria 101: methymercury. WHO, Geneva
Phelps RW, Clarkson TW, Kershaw TG, Wheatley B (1980) Interrelationships of blood and hair mercury concentrations in a north-American population exposed to methylmercury. Arch Environ Health 35:161–168
Cernichiari E, Brewer R, Myers GJ, Marsh DO, Lapham LW, Cox C, Shamlaye CF, Berlin M, Davidson PW, Clarkson TW (1995) Monitoring methylmercury during pregnancy: maternal hair predicts fetal brain exposure. Neurotoxicology 16:705–709
Agah H, Leermakers M, Elskens M, Fatemi M, Baeyens W (2007) Total mercury and methylmercury concentrations in fish from the Persian Gulf and the Caspian Sea. Water Air Soil Pollut 181:95–105
Mortada WI, Sobh MA, El-Defrawy MM, Farahat SE (2002) Reference intervals of cadmium, lead, and mercury in blood, urine, hair, and nails among residents in Mansoura city, Nile Delta, Egypt. Environ Res Sect A 90:104–110
Al-Majed NB, Preston MR (2000) Factors influencing the total mercury and methyl mercury in the hair of the fishermen of Kuwait. Environ Pollut 109:239–250
Kim SA, Jeon CK, Paek DM (2008) Hair mercury concentrations of children and mothers in Korea: implication for exposure and evaluation. Sci Total Environ 402:36–42
Gundacker C, Fröhlich S, Graf-Rohrmeister K, Eibenberger B, Jessenig V, Gicic D, Prinz S, Wittmann KJ, Zeisler H, Vallant B, Pollak A, Husslein P (2010) Perinatal lead and mercury exposure in Austria. Sci Total Environ 408:5744–5749
Oken E, Wright RO, Kleinman KP, Bellinger D, Amarasiriwardena CJ, Hu H, Rich-Edwards JW, Gillman MW (2005) Maternal fish consumption, hair mercury, and infant cognition in a U.S. cohort. Environ Health Perspect 113:1376–1380
Pinheiro MC, Muller RC, Sarkis JE, Vieira JL, Oikawa T, Gomes MS, Guimarães GA, do Nascimento JLM, Silveira LL (2005) Mercury and selenium concentrations in hair samples of women in fertile age from Amazon riverside communities. Sci Total Environ 349:284–288
Alves MF, Fraiji NA, Barbosa AC, De Lima DS, Souza JR, Dorea JG, Cordeiro GW (2006) Fish consumption, mercury exposure and serum antinuclear antibody in Amazonians. Int J Environ Heal Res 16:255–262
Counter SA, Buchanan LH, Ortega F (2006) Neurocognitive screening of mercury-exposed children of Andean gold miners. Int J Occup Environ Health 12:209–214
Gao Y, Yan CH, Tian Y, Wang Y, Xie HF, Zhou X, Yu XD, Yu XG, Tong S, Zhou QX, Shen XM (2007) Prenatal exposure to mercury and neurobehavioral development of neonates in Zhoushan City, China. Environ Res 105:390–399
Gibicar D, Horvat M, Nakou S, Sarafidou J, Yager J (2006) Pilot study of intrauterine exposure to methylmercury in Eastern Aegean islands Greece. Sci Total Environ 367:586–595
Montuori P, Jover E, Díez S, Ribas-Fitó N, Sunyer J, Triassi M, Bayona JM (2006) Mercury speciation in the hair of pre-school children living near a chlor-alkali plant. Sci Total Environ 369:51–58
Murata K, Weihe P, Budtz-Jorgensen E, Jorgensen PJ, Grandjean P (2006) Correction for “Delayed brainstem auditory evoked potential latencies in 14-year-old children exposed to methylmercury” by Murata et al. J Pediatr 149:583–584
Van Wijngaarden E, Beck C, Shamlaye CF, Cernichiari E, Davidson PW, Myers GJ, Clarkson TW (2006) Benchmark concentrations for methyl mercury obtained from the 9-year follow-up of the Seychelles Child Development Study. Neurotoxicology 27:702–709
Zhang L, Wang Q (2006) Preliminary study on health risk from mercury exposure to residents of Wujiazhan town on the Di’er Songhua river, Northeast China. Environ Geochem Health 28:67–71
Anwar M, Ando T, Maaz A, Ghani S, Munir M, Qureshi IU, Naeem S, Tsuji M, Wakamiya J, Nakano A, Akiba S (2007) Scalp hair mercury concentrations in Pakistan. Environ Sci 14:167–175
Diez S, Montuori P, Pagano A, Sarnacchiaro P, Bayona JM, Triassi M (2008) Hair mercury levels in an urban population from southern Italy: fish consumption as a determinant of exposure. Environ Int 34:162–167
Knobeloch L, Anderson HA, Imm P, Peters D, Smith A (2005) Fish consumption, advisory awareness, and hair mercury levels among women of childbearing age. Environ Res 97:220–227
Marques RC, Dorea JG, Bastos W, Rebelo MF, Fonseca MF, Malm O (2007) Maternal mercury exposure and neuro-motor development in breastfed infants from Porto Velho (Amazon), Brazil. Int J Hyg Environ Health 210:51–60
Rojas M, Nakamura K, Seijas D, Squiuante G, Pieters MA, Infante S (2007) Mercury in hair as a biomarker of exposure in a coastal Venezuelan population. Investig Clin 48:305–315
Zhang L, Wong MH (2007) Environmental mercury contamination in China: sources and impacts. Environ Int 33:108–121
Zolfaghari G, Esmaili-Sari A, Ghasempouri SM, Hassanzade-Kiabi B (2007) Examination of mercury concentrations in the feathers of 18 species of birds in southwest Iran. Environ Res 104:258–265
Saei-Dehkordi S, Fallah AA, Nematollahi A (2010) Arsenic and mercury in commercially valuable fish species from the Persian Gulf: influence of season and habitat. Food Chem Toxicol 48:2945–2950
Salehi Z, Esmaili-Sari A (2010) Hair mercury levels in pregnant women in Mahshahr, Iran: fish consumption as a determinant of exposure. Sci Total Environ 408:4848–4854
Fakour H, Esmaili-Sari A, Zayeri F (2010) Mercury exposure assessment in Iranian women’s hair of a port town with respect to fish consumption and amalgam fillings. Sci Total Environ 408:1538–1543
Steuerwald U, Weihe P, Jorgensen PJ, Bjerve K, Brock J, Heinzow B, Budtz-Jørgensen E, Grandjean P (2000) Maternal seafood diet, methylmercury exposure, and neonatal neurologic function. J Pediatr 136:599–605
Budtz-Jorgensen E, Grandjean P, Jorgensen PJ, Weihe P, Keiding N (2005) Association between mercury concentrations in blood and hair in methylmercury-exposed subjects at different ages. Environ Res 95:385–393
Murata K, Sakamoto M, Nakai K, Dakeishi M, Iwata T, Liu XJ, Satoh H (2006) Subclinical effects of prenatal methylmercury exposure on cardiac autonomic function in Japanese children. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 79:379–386
EPA (2006) Mercury levels in commercial fish and shellfish. US Department of Health and Human Services and US EPA, Washington, DC
Murata K, Weihe P, Budtz-Jorgensen E, Jorgensen PJ, Grandjean P (2004) Delayed brainstem auditory evoked potential latencies in 14-year-old children exposed to methylmercury. J Pediatr 144:177–183
Morrissette J, Takser L, St-Amour G, Smargiass A, Lafond J, Mergler D (2004) Temporal variation of blood and hair mercury levels in pregnancy in relation to fish consumption history in a population living along the St. Lawrence River. Environ Res 95:363–374
Karouna-Renier NK, Ranga Rao K, Lanza JJ, Rivers SD, Wilson PA, Hodges DK, Levine KE, Ross GT (2008) Mercury levels and fish consumption practices in women of child-bearing age in the Florida Panhandle. Environ Res 108:320–326
Mahaffe KR (2004) Fish and shellfish as dietary sources of methylmercury and the omega-3 fatty acids, eicosahexaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid: risks and benefits. Environ Res 95:414–428
Xue F, Holzman C, Rahbar MH, Trosko K, Fischer L (2007) Maternal fish consumption, mercury levels, and risk of preterm delivery. Environ Health Perspect 115(1):42–47
Ramirez GB, Cruz MC, Pagulayan O, Ostrea E, Dalisay C (2000) The Tagum study I: analysis and clinical correlates of mercury in maternal and cord blood, breast milk, meconium, and infants’ hair. Pediatr 106:774–781
Knobeloch L, Gliori G, Anderson H (2007) Assessment of methylmercury exposure in Wisconsin. Environ Res 103:205–210
Hacon S, Yokoo E, Valente J, Campos RC, da Silva VA, de Menezes ACC, de Moraes LP, Ignotti E (2000) Exposure to mercury in pregnant women from Alta Floresta–Amazon Basin Brazil. Environ Res Sect A 84:204–210
Bjornberg KA, Vahter M, Grawe KP, Berglund M (2005) Methyl mercury exposure in Swedish women with high fish consumption. Sci Total Environ 341:45–52
Fok TF, Lam HS, Ng PC, Yip AS, Sin NC, Chan IH, Gu GJS, So HK, Wong EMC, Lam CWK (2007) Fetal methylmercury exposure as measured by cord blood mercury concentrations in a mother–infant cohort in Hong Kong. Environ Int 33:84–92
Ramón R, Murcia M, Ballester F, Rebagliato M, Lacasañ M, Vioque J, Llop S, Amurrio A, Aguinagalde X, Marco A, León G, Ibarluzea J, Ribas-Fitó N (2008) Prenatal exposure to mercury in a prospective mother–infant cohort study in a Mediterranean area, Valencia, Spain. Sci Total Environ 392:69–78
Ostrea JREM, Bielawski DM, Posecion JRNC, Corrion M, Villanueva-Uy E, Bernardo RC, Jin Y, Janisse JJ, Ager JW (2009) Combined analysis of prenatal (maternal hair and blood) and neonatal (infant hair, cord blood and meconium) matrices to detect fetal exposure to environmental pesticides. Environ Res 109:116–122
Bin Jiang C, Ying Yeh C, Chang Lee H, Jun Chen M, Yu Hung F, Shiung Fang S, Chein LC (2010) Mercury concentration in meconium and risk assessment of fish consumption among pregnant women in Taiwan. Sci Total Environ 408:518–523
Schober SE, Sinks TH, Jones RL, Bolger PM, McDowell M, Osterloh J, Garrett ES, Canady RA, Dillon CF, Sun Y, Joseph CB, Mahaffey KR (2003) Blood mercury levels in U.S. children and women of childbearing age, 1999–2000. J Am Med Assoc 289:1667–1674
Domingo JL (2007) Omega-3 fatty acids and the benefits of fish consumption: is all that glitters gold? Environ Int 33:993–998
Daniels JL, Longnecker MP, Rowland AS, Golding J (2004) Fish intake during pregnancy and early cognitive development of offspring. Epidemiology 15:394–402
Campbell LM, Norstrom RJ, Hobson KA, Muir DC, Backus S, Fisk AT (2005) Mercury and other trace elements in a pelagic Arctic marine food web (Northwater Polynya, Baffin Bay). Sci Total Environ 351–352:247–263
Sakamoto M, Kubota M, Liu XJ, Murata K, Nakai K, Satoh H (2004) Maternal and fetal mercury and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids as a risk and benefit of fish consumption to fetus. Environ Sci Tech 38:3860–3863
Esmaili-Sari A, Ghasempouri SM, Mousavi M (2006a) Mercury concentration in various organs of the white cheek shark (Carcharhinus dussumieri) in Persian Gulf. Madison, Wisconsin
Esmaili-Sari A, Abtahi B, Ghasempouri SM, Yazdani Nasab L (2006b) Assessing of concentration and bioaccumulation of mercury in some organs of Liza aurata in the Southern Caspian Sea. Madison, Wisconsin
Esmaili-Sari A, Riahi Bakhtiari A, Ghasempouri SA, Nozari M (2006c) Determination and comparison of mercury concentrations in different organs of pike (Esox lucius) in the Anzali Wetland, Iran. Madison, Wisconsin
Esmaili-Sari A, Ghasempouri SM, Namayandeh FA, Mortazavi S (2006d) Mercury determination in 5 different shrimp species in the Persian Gulf. Madison, Wisconsin
Esmaili-Sari A, Ghasempouri SM, Ghasemzadeh G, Taheriazad L (2006f) Determination of mercury concentration in liver, lien and muscle of 10 freshwater fishes in Anzali wetland: simple food chain. Madison, Wisconsin
Esmaili-Sari A, Seifabadi SJ, Ghasempouri SM, Ghadri V (2006j) Determination of mercury concentration in habitat, muscle and gill of mudskipper (Boleophthalmus dussumieri) in Mahshahr Creek, Persian Gulf. Madison, Wisconsin
Esmaili-Sari A, Ghasempouri SM, Seyfabadi SJ, Rafii M (2006h) Mercury concentrations in flatfish (Euryglossa orientalis) to assess the impact of a petrochemical complex, Persian Gulf. Madison, Wisconsin
Esmaili-Sari, Ghasempouri SM, Foroughi S (2006i) The study correlation between weight and length of fish and mercury concentration in different organs of kutum roach (Rutilus frisii kutum) from central south of Caspian Sea. Madison, Wisconsin
Peraza MA, Ayala-Fierro F, Barber DS, Casares E, Rael LT (1998) Effects of micronutrients on metal toxicity. Environ Health Perspect 106(suppl 1):203–216
Skare I, Engqvist A (1994) Human exposure to mercury and silver released from dental amalgam restorations. Arch Environ Health 49:384–394
Langworth S, Kolbeck KG, Akesson A (1988) Mercury exposure from dental fillings. II. Release and absorption. Swede Dent J 12:71–72
Olsson S, Bergman M (1992) Daily dose calculations from measurements of intra-oral mercury vapor. J Dent Res 71:414–423
Lorscheider FL, Vimy MJ, Summers AO, Zwiers H (1995) The dental amalgam mercury controversy: inorganic mercury and the CNS; genetic linkage of mercury and antibiotic resistances in intestinal bacteria. Toxicology 97:19–22
Casetta I, Invernizzi M, Granieri E (2001) Multiple sclerosis and dental amalgam: case control study in Ferrara, Italy. Neuroepidemiology 20:134–137
Bangsi D, Ghadirian P, Ducle S, Morisset R, Ciccocioppo S, McMulien E, Krewski D (1998) Dental amalgam and multiple sclerosis: a case–control study in Montreal, Canada. Int J Epidemiol 27:667–671
Unuvar E, Ahmadov H, Kiziler AR, Aydemir B, Toprak S, Ulker V, Ark C (2007) Mercury levels in cord blood and meconium of healthy newborns and venous blood of their mothers: clinical, prospective cohort study. Total Environ 374:60–70
Risher J, DeWoskin R (2004) Toxicological profile for mercury. In: Registry USDoHaHSPHSAfTSaD (ed) ATSDR tox profiles 2004. US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta
Olivero-Verbel J, Johnson-Restrepo B, Baldiris-Avila R, Güette-Fernández J, Magallanes-Carreazo E, Vanegas-Ramírez L, Kunihiko N (2008) Human and crab exposure to mercury in the Caribbean coastal shoreline of Colombia: impact from an abandoned chlor-alkali plant. Environ Int 34:476–482
Barbosa AC, Dorea JG (1998) Indices of mercury contamination during breast feeding in the Amazon Basin. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 6:71–79
Greenwood MR, Clarkson TW, Doherty RA, Gates AM, Amin-Zaki L, Elhassani S, Majeed MA (1978) Blood clearance halftimes in lactating and nonlactating members of a population exposed to methylmercury. Environ Res 16:48–54
Dorea JG (2004) Mercury and lead during breast-feeding. Br J Neutral 92:21–40
Sandborgh-Englund G, Ask K, Belfrage E, Ekstrand J (2001) Mercury exposure in utero and during infancy. J Toxicol Environ Health 63:317–320
Bjornberg KA, Vahter M, Berglund B, Niklasson B, Blennow M, Sandborgh-Englund G (2005) Transport of methylmercury and inorganic mercury to the fetus and breast-fed infant. Environ Health Perspect 113:1381–1385
Oddy WH (2001) Breastfeeding protects against illness and infection in infants and children: a review of the evidence. Breastfeed Rev 9:11–18
Forsyth IS (1995) The relationship between breast-feeding and infant health development. Process Nutr Soc 54:407–418
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Dr. Alipour for providing the pregnant women’s name list and collection in Central Health Noushar. We would like to also thank Dr. Ali Daneshi for critically reviewing the paper.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Barghi, M., Behrooz, R.D., Esmaili-Sari, A. et al. Mercury Exposure Assessment in Iranian Pregnant Women’s Hair with Respect to Diet, Amalgam Filling, and Lactation. Biol Trace Elem Res 148, 292–301 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-012-9384-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-012-9384-y