Opinion statement
Consensus does not exist regarding what should constitute a “dream disorder.” Conditions with disordered dreaming may be thought of as primary (ie, arising from changes in dreaming per se) or secondary to extrinsic disorders that impinge on structures involved in dreaming. The major primary disorder of dreaming, nightmare disorder, is covered in depth in this article. Definition of nightmare, diagnostic criteria for nightmare disorder, and differential diagnosis are discussed. The value of a sleep-disorders perspective on nightmares, and the possible exacerbating effects of sleep disorders that cause arousals, are indicated. The importance of a perspective that appreciates nightmares as richly and personally meaningful, with links to complex psychological factors present and past, is emphasized. Two types of treatment approaches are discussed: approaches that target the symptom of nightmares in relative isolation, and approaches that aim at working out psychological issues viewed as causing nightmares and a variety of other interconnected symptoms and problems. The former type of treatment includes the cognitive-behavioral approach “imagery rehearsal therapy,” and the medication prazosin. The latter approach entails exploratory or psychodynamic psychotherapies. The approaches are seen as so different in scope, aim, and conceptual framework as to defy ready comparison. I think that a thorough psychological/psychiatric evaluation is essential for informed consideration in conjunction with the patient’s choice of treatment approach. Sleep terrors are discussed as a non-rapid eye movement sleep arousal disorder that at times may be linked to broader psychological issues warranting consideration of psychotherapy. Brief summaries are provided of dream disorders secondary to other sleep disorders, drug and alcohol effects, medical disorders, and organic brain damage.
Similar content being viewed by others
References and Recommended Reading
Hobson JA, Pace-Schott EF, Stickgold R: Dreaming and the brain: toward a cognitive neuroscience of conscious states. Behav Brain Sci 2000, 23:793–842.
Eiser AS: Part I: Dreaming as seen from a range of approaches. (Dreaming: a psychiatric view and insights from the study of parasomnias. Edited by Eiser AS, Schenck CH.) Schweiz Arch Neurol Psychiatr 2005, 156:441–452.
International Classification of Sleep Disorders: Diagnostic and Coding Manual, edn 2. Westchester, IL: American Academy of Sleep Medicine; 2005.
Kryger MH, Roth T, Dement WC: Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine, edn 4. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2005.
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, edn 4, text revision. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000.
Zadra A, Donderi DC: Nightmares and bad dreams: their prevalence and relationship to well-being. J Abnorm Psychol 2000, 109:273–281.
Zadra A, Donderi DC: Affective content and intensity of nightmares and bad dreams. Sleep 2003, 26:A93–A94.
Partinen M: Epidemiology of sleep disorders. In Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine, edn 2. Edited by Kryger MH, Roth T, Dement WC. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1994:437–452.
Hublin C, Kaprio J, Partinen M, et al.: Nightmares: familial aggregation and association with psychiatric disorders in a nationwide twin cohort. Am J Med Genet 1999, 88:329–336.
Fisher C, Byrne J, Edwards A, et al.: A psychophysiological study of nightmares. J Am Psychoanal Assoc 1970, 18:747–782.
Woodward SH, Arsenault NJ, Murray C, et al.: Laboratory sleep correlates of nightmare complaint in PTSD inpatients. Biol Psychiatry 2000, 48:1081–1087.
Germain A, Nielsen TA: Sleep pathophysiology in posttraumatic stress disorder and idiopathic nightmare sufferers. Biol Psychiatry 2003, 54:1092–1098.
Spoormaker VI, Schredl M, van den Bout J: Nightmares: from anxiety symptom to sleep disorder. Sleep Med Rev 2006, 10:19–31.
Kramer M, Schoen LS, Kinney L: Nightmares in Vietnam veterans. J Am Acad Psychoanal 1987, 15:67–81.
Renik O: Typical examination dreams, “superego dreams,” and traumatic dreams. Psychoanal Q 1981, 50:159–189.
Lansky MR: Posttraumatic Nightmares: Psychodynamic Explorations. Hillsdale, NJ: The Analytic Press; 1995.
Blagrove M, Farmer L, Williams E: The relationship of nightmare frequency and nightmare distress to well-being. J Sleep Res 2004, 13:129–136.
Krakow B, Hollifield M, Johnston L, et al.: Imagery rehearsal therapy for chronic nightmares in sexual assault survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2001, 286:537–545.
Krakow B, Zadra A: Clinical management of chronic nightmares: imagery rehearsal therapy. Behav Sleep Med 2006, 4:45–70.
Raskind MA, Peskind ER, Kanter ED, et al.: Reduction of nightmares and other PTSD symptoms in combat veterans by prazosin: a placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry 2003, 160:371–373.
Gabbard GO: Efficacy of psychotherapy. In Psychodynamic Psychiatry in Clinical Practice, edn 4. Washington, DC American Psychiatric Publishing Inc.; 2005:120–121.
Fisher C, Kahn E, Edwards A, et al.: A psychophysiological study of nightmares and night terrors: III. Mental content and recall of stage 4 night terrors. J Nerv Ment Dis 1974, 158:174–188.
Schenck CH, Hurwitz TD, Mahowald MW: REM sleep behavior disorder: an update on a series of 96 patients and a review of the world literature. J Sleep Res 1993, 2:224–231.
Olson EJ, Boeve BF, Silber MH: Rapid-eye-movement sleep behavior disorder: demographic, clinical and laboratory findings in 93 cases. Brain 2000, 123:331–339.
Fantini ML, Corona A, Clerici S, et al.: Aggressive dream content without daytime aggressiveness in REM sleep behavior disorder. Neurology 2005, 65:1010–1015.
Schenck CH, Mahowald MW: REM sleep behavior disorder: clinical, developmental, and neuroscience perspectives 16 years after its formal identification in SLEEP. Sleep 2002, 25:120–138.
Honda Y: Clinical features of narcolepsy: Japanese experiences. In HLA in Narcolepsy. Edited by Hondi Y, Juji T. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 1988.
Vogel GW: Mentation reported from naps of narcoleptics. In Narcolepsy: Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Narcolepsy. Edited by Guilleminault C, Dement WC, Passouant P. New York: Spectrum Publications; 1976:161–168.
Schredl M: Dream content in patients with narcolepsy: preliminary findings. Dreaming 1998; 8:103–107.
Pagel JF, Helfter P: Drug induced nightmares-an etiology based review. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp 2003, 18:59–67.
Thompson DF, Pierce DR: Drug-induced nightmares. Ann Pharmacother 1999, 33:93–98.
Reami DO, Silva DF, Albuquerque M, et al.: Dreams and epilepsy. Epilepsia 1991, 32:51–53.
Solms M: The Neuropsychology of Dreams: A Clinico-Anatomical Study. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1997.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Eiser, A.S. Dream disorders and treatment. Curr Treat Options Neurol 9, 317–324 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11940-007-0017-2
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11940-007-0017-2