Abstract
Purpose of Review
The purpose of this study is to review and summarize the literature exploring the genetic basis for premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) and postpartum depression (PPD).
Recent Findings
There is more evidence for a genetic basis for PPD than for PMDD, but only when PPD is defined as beginning in the immediate postpartum time period.
Summary
Familial, genome-wide linkage and association studies, and candidate gene studies, most in the past 10 years, have examined the genetic etiology of reproductive affective disorders, including PMDD and PPD. The most commonly studied genes include SERT, COMT, MAOA, BDNF, and ESR1 and 2. This qualitative review of the recent literature finds limited evidence so far for the genetic basis for PMDD, with both familial and candidate gene studies having negative or conflicting results. Evidence is stronger for the genetic basis for PPD, with positive associations found in family studies and in several genes associated with major depression as well as genes involved in estrogen signaling but only when PPD onset is shortly after delivery. Epigenetic biomarkers on genes responsive to estrogen have also been found to predict PPD. Our findings underscore the need for additional studies with larger samples, as well as the crucial importance of timing in the definition of PPD for genetic studies.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: • Of importance
Levinson DF, Mostafavi S, Milaneschi Y, Rivera M, Ripke S, Wray NR, et al. Genetic studies of major depressive disorder: why are there no genome-wide association study findings and what can we do about it? Biol Psychiatry. 2014;76(7):510–2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.07.029.
Payne JL, Palmer JT, Joffe H. A reproductive subtype of depression: conceptualizing models and moving toward etiology. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2009;17(2):72–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/10673220902899706.
Cyranowski JM, Frank E, Young E, Shear MK. Adolescent onset of the gender difference in lifetime rates of major depression: a theoretical model. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000;57(1):21–7.
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5. Washington DC 2013.
Yonkers KA, Simoni MK. Premenstrual disorders. Am J Obstet Gynecol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2017.05.045.
Diraimondo F, Bolognesi M, Brenci G, Vignetti G. Genetic exploration of the premenstrual syndrome through the clinical twin method. Il Policlinico Sezionen. 1964;71:271–90.
Heslington KDK. The incidence of premenstrual syndrome in the adoptive daughter. Br J Fam Plann. 1994;19:23–4.
Kantero RL, Widholm O. Correlations of menstrual traits between adolescent girls and their mothers. Acta Obs Gynaecol Scand (Suppl). 1971;14:30–6.
Glick H, Endicott J, Nee J. Premenstrual changes: are they familial? Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1993;88(3):149–55.
Payne JL, Klein SR, Zamoiski RB, Zandi PP, Bienvenu OJ, Mackinnon DF, et al. Premenstrual mood symptoms: study of familiality and personality correlates in mood disorder pedigrees. Arch Women’s Ment Health. 2009;12(1):27–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-008-0043-4.
Kendler KS, Silberg JL, Neale MC, Kessler RC, Heath AC, Eaves LJ. Genetic and environmental factors in the aetiology of menstrual, premenstrual and neurotic symptoms: a population-based twin study. Psychol Med. 1992;22(1):85–100.
Kendler KS, Karkowski LM, Corey LA, Neale MC. Longitudinal population-based twin study of retrospectively reported premenstrual symptoms and lifetime major depression. Am J Psychiatry. 1998;155(9):1234–40. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.155.9.1234.
van den Akker OB, Stein GS, Neale MC, Murray RM. Genetic and environmental variation in menstrual cycle: histories of two British twin samples. Acta Genet Med Gemellol. 1987;36(4):541–8.
Dalton K, Dalton ME, Guthrie K. Incidence of the premenstrual syndrome in twins. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1987;295(6605):1027–8.
Condon JT. The premenstrual syndrome: a twin study. Br J Psychiatry. 1993;162:481–6.
Jahanfar S, Lye MS, Krishnarajah IS. The heritability of premenstrual syndrome. Twin Res Hum Genet. 2011;14(5):433–6. https://doi.org/10.1375/twin.14.5.433.
Treloar SA, Heath AC, Martin NG. Genetic and environmental influences on premenstrual symptoms in an Australian twin sample. Psychol Med. 2002;32(1):25–38.
van den Akker OB, Eves FF, Stein GS, Murray RM. Genetic and environmental factors in premenstrual symptom reporting and its relationship to depression and a general neuroticism trait. J Psychosom Res. 1995;39(4):477–87.
Treloar SA, Martin NG, Bucholz KK, Madden PA, Heath AC. Genetic influences on post-natal depressive symptoms: findings from an Australian twin sample. Psychol Med. 1999;29(3):645–54.
Murphy-Eberenz K, Zandi PP, March D, Crowe RR, Scheftner WA, Alexander M, et al. Is perinatal depression familial? J Affect Disord. 2006;90(1):49–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2005.10.006.
Forty L, Jones L, Macgregor S, Caesar S, Cooper C, Hough A, et al. Familiality of postpartum depression in unipolar disorder: results of a family study. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163(9):1549–53. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.2006.163.9.1549.
Payne JL, MacKinnon DF, Mondimore FM, McInnis MG, Schweizer B, Zamoiski RB, et al. Familial aggregation of postpartum mood symptoms in bipolar disorder pedigrees. Bipolar Disord. 2008;10(1):38–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-5618.2008.00455.x.
Mahon PB, Payne JL, MacKinnon DF, Mondimore FM, Goes FS, Schweizer B, et al. Genome-wide linkage and follow-up association study of postpartum mood symptoms. Am J Psychiatry. 2009;166(11):1229–37. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09030417.
Green AD, Galea LA. Adult hippocampal cell proliferation is suppressed with estrogen withdrawal after a hormone-simulated pregnancy. Horm Behav. 2008;54(1):203–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.02.023.
Carroll JS, Meyer CA, Song J, Li W, Geistlinger TR, Eeckhoute J, et al. Genome-wide analysis of estrogen receptor binding sites. Nat Genet. 2006;38(11):1289–97. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng1901.
• Mehta D, Newport DJ, Frishman G, Kraus L, Rex-Haffner M, Ritchie JC, et al. Early predictive biomarkers for postpartum depression point to a role for estrogen receptor signaling. Psychol Med. 2014;44(11):2309–22. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291713003231. Genome-wide association gene expression study during pregnancy that was predictive of PPD in women euthymic during pregnancy .
Damberg M, Westberg L, Berggard C, Landen M, Sundblad C, Eriksson O, et al. Investigation of transcription factor AP-2 beta genotype in women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Neurosci Lett. 2005;377(1):49–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2004.11.068.
Comasco E, Hahn A, Ganger S, Gingnell M, Bannbers E, Oreland L, et al. Emotional fronto-cingulate cortex activation and brain derived neurotrophic factor polymorphism in premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Hum Brain Mapp. 2014;35(9):4450–8. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.22486.
Huo L, Straub RE, Roca C, Schmidt PJ, Shi K, Vakkalanka R, et al. Risk for premenstrual dysphoric disorder is associated with genetic variation in ESR1, the estrogen receptor alpha gene. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;62(8):925–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.12.019.
Deveci EO, Incebiyik A, Selek S, Camuzcuoglu A, Hilali NG, Camuzcuoglu H, et al. Is catechol-o-methyltransferase gene polymorphism a risk factor in the development of premenstrual syndrome? Clin Exp Reprod Med. 2014;41(2):62–7. https://doi.org/10.5653/cerm.2014.41.2.62.
Yildiz M, Vural M, Erdal ME, Izci Ay O, Yilmaz SG, Karababa IF, et al. Lack of association of DRD3 and CNR1 polymorphisms with premenstrual dysphoric disorders. Iran J Reprod Med. 2015;13(4):221–6.
Miller A, Vo H, Huo L, Roca C, Schmidt PJ, Rubinow DR. Estrogen receptor alpha (ESR-1) associations with psychological traits in women with PMDD and controls. J Psychiatr Res. 2010;44(12):788–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.01.013.
Takeo C, Negishi E, Nakajima A, Ueno K, Tatsuno I, Saito Y, et al. Association of cytosine-adenine repeat polymorphism of the estrogen receptor-beta gene with menopausal symptoms. Gend Med. 2005;2(2):96–105.
Melke J, Westberg L, Landen M, Sundblad C, Eriksson O, Baghei F, et al. Serotonin transporter gene polymorphisms and platelet [3H] paroxetine binding in premenstrual dysphoria. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2003;28(3):446–58.
Praschak-Rieder N, Willeit M, Winkler D, Neumeister A, Hilger E, Zill P, et al. Role of family history and 5-HTTLPR polymorphism in female seasonal affective disorder patients with and without premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2002;12(2):129–34.
Gingnell M, Comasco E, Oreland L, Fredrikson M, Sundstrom-Poromaa I. Neuroticism-related personality traits are related to symptom severity in patients with premenstrual dysphoric disorder and to the serotonin transporter gene-linked polymorphism 5-HTTPLPR. Arch Women’s Ment Health. 2010;13(5):417–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-010-0164-4.
Magnay JL, El-Shourbagy M, Fryer AA, O'Brien S, Ismail KM. Analysis of the serotonin transporter promoter rs25531 polymorphism in premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2010;203(2):181.e1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2010.02.043.
Dhingra V, Magnay JL, O'Brien PM, Chapman G, Fryer AA, Ismail KM. Serotonin receptor 1A C(-1019)G polymorphism associated with premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Obstet Gynecol. 2007;110(4):788–92. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.AOG.0000284448.73490.ac.
Yen JY, Tu HP, Chen CS, Yen CF, Long CY, Ko CH. The effect of serotonin 1A receptor polymorphism on the cognitive function of premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2014;264(8):729–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-013-0466-4.
Figueira P, Malloy-Diniz L, Campos SB, Miranda DM, Romano-Silva MA, De Marco L, et al. An association study between the Val66Met polymorphism of the BDNF gene and postpartum depression. Arch Women’s Ment Health. 2010;13(3):285–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-010-0146-6.
Comasco E, Sylven SM, Papadopoulos FC, Oreland L, Sundstrom-Poromaa I, Skalkidou A. Postpartum depressive symptoms and the BDNF Val66Met functional polymorphism: effect of season of delivery. Arch Women’s Ment Health. 2011;14(6):453–63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-011-0239-x.
Doornbos B, Dijck-Brouwer DA, Kema IP, Tanke MA, van Goor SA, Muskiet FA, et al. The development of peripartum depressive symptoms is associated with gene polymorphisms of MAOA, 5-HTT and COMT. Prog Neuro-Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2009;33(7):1250–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2009.07.013.
Alvim-Soares A, Miranda D, Campos SB, Figueira P, Romano-Silva MA, Correa H. Postpartum depression symptoms associated with Val158Met COMT polymorphism. Arch Women’s Ment Health. 2013;16(4):339–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-013-0349-8.
Engineer N, Darwin L, Nishigandh D, Ngianga-Bakwin K, Smith SC, Grammatopoulos DK. Association of glucocorticoid and type 1 corticotropin-releasing hormone receptors gene variants and risk for depression during pregnancy and post-partum. J Psychiatr Res. 2013;47(9):1166–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.05.003.
Schneider M, Engel A, Fasching PA, Haberle L, Binder EB, Voigt F, et al. Genetic variants in the genes of the stress hormone signalling pathway and depressive symptoms during and after pregnancy. Biomed Res Int. 2014;2014:469278. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/469278.
Stergiakouli E, Sterne JA, Smith GD. Failure to replicate the association of glucocorticoid and type 1 corticotropin-releasing hormone receptors gene variants with risk of depression during pregnancy and post-partum reported by. J Psychiatr Res. 2014;56:168–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.04.016.
Tan EC, Chua TE, Lee TM, Tan HS, Ting JL, Chen HY. Case-control study of glucocorticoid receptor and corticotrophin-releasing hormone receptor gene variants and risk of perinatal depression. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2015;15:283. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-015-0720-z.
Josefsson A, Sydsjo G, Berg G, Dahl ML, Wadelius M, Nordin C. CYP2D6 genotypes and depressive symptoms during late pregnancy and postpartum. Nord J Psychiatry. 2004;58(1):61–4. https://doi.org/10.1080/08039480310000815.
Ivorra JL, Sanjuan J, Jover M, Carot JM, Frutos R, Molto MD. Gene-environment interaction of child temperament. J Dev Behav Pediatr: JDBP. 2010;31(7):545–54. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0b013e3181ee4072.
Costas J, Gratacos M, Escaramis G, Martin-Santos R, de Diego Y, Baca-Garcia E, et al. Association study of 44 candidate genes with depressive and anxiety symptoms in post-partum women. J Psychiatr Res. 2010;44(11):717–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2009.12.012.
Pinsonneault JK, Sullivan D, Sadee W, Soares CN, Hampson E, Steiner M. Association study of the estrogen receptor gene ESR1 with postpartum depression—a pilot study. Arch Women’s Ment Health. 2013;16(6):499–509. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-013-0373-8.
Xie L, Innis SM. Association of fatty acid desaturase gene polymorphisms with blood lipid essential fatty acids and perinatal depression among Canadian women: a pilot study. J Nutrigenet Nutrigenomics. 2009;2(4–5):243–50. https://doi.org/10.1159/000255636.
• Alvim-Soares AM, Miranda DM, Campos SB, Figueira P, Correa H, Romano-Silva MA. HMNC1 gene polymorphism associated with postpartum depression. Rev Bras Psiquiatr (Sao Paulo, Brazil : 1999). 2014;36(1):96–7. https://doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-2013-3507. Validates an association between HMNC1 and PPD. HMNC1 was previously identified by a genome-wide linkage and association study.
Iliadis SI, Comasco E, Hellgren C, Kollia N, Sundstrom Poromaa I, Skalkidou A. Associations between a polymorphism in the hydroxysteroid (11-beta) dehydrogenase 1 gene, neuroticism and postpartum depression. J Affect Disord. 2017;207:141–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.09.030.
Lewis SJ, Araya R, Leary S, Smith GD, Ness A. Folic acid supplementation during pregnancy may protect against depression 21 months after pregnancy, an effect modified by MTHFR C677T genotype. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2012;66(1):97–103. https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2011.136.
Jonas W, Mileva-Seitz V, Girard AW, Bisceglia R, Kennedy JL, Sokolowski M, et al. Genetic variation in oxytocin rs2740210 and early adversity associated with postpartum depression and breastfeeding duration. Genes Brain Behav. 2013;12(7):681–94. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12069.
Mileva-Seitz V, Steiner M, Atkinson L, Meaney MJ, Levitan R, Kennedy JL, et al. Interaction between oxytocin genotypes and early experience predicts quality of mothering and postpartum mood. PLoS One. 2013;8(4):e61443. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0061443.
Bell AF, Carter CS, Steer CD, Golding J, Davis JM, Steffen AD, et al. Interaction between oxytocin receptor DNA methylation and genotype is associated with risk of postpartum depression in women without depression in pregnancy. Front Genet. 2015;6:243. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2015.00243.
Sanjuan J, Martin-Santos R, Garcia-Esteve L, Carot JM, Guillamat R, Gutierrez-Zotes A, et al. Mood changes after delivery: role of the serotonin transporter gene. Br J Psychiatry. 2008;193(5):383–8. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.107.045427.
Binder EB, Newport DJ, Zach EB, Smith AK, Deveau TC, Altshuler LL, et al. A serotonin transporter gene polymorphism predicts peripartum depressive symptoms in an at-risk psychiatric cohort. J Psychiatr Res. 2010;44(10):640–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2009.12.001.
Mitchell C, Notterman D, Brooks-Gunn J, Hobcraft J, Garfinkel I, Jaeger K, et al. Role of mother's genes and environment in postpartum depression. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011;108(20):8189–93. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1014129108.
Gelabert E, Subira S, Garcia-Esteve L, Navarro P, Plaza A, Cuyas E, et al. Perfectionism dimensions in major postpartum depression. J Affect Disord. 2012;136(1–2):17–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2011.08.030.
Khabour O, Amarneh B, Bani Hani E, Lataifeh I. Associations between variations in TPH1 , TPH2 and SLC6A4 genes and postpartum depression: a study in the Jordanian population. Balkan J Med Genet: BJMG. 2013;16(1):41–8. https://doi.org/10.2478/bjmg-2013-0016.
Pinheiro RT, Coelho FM, Silva RA, Pinheiro KA, Oses JP, Quevedo Lde A, et al. Association of a serotonin transporter gene polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) and stressful life events with postpartum depressive symptoms: a population-based study. J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol. 2013;34(1):29–33. https://doi.org/10.3109/0167482x.2012.759555.
Zhang X, Wang L, Huang F, Li J, Xiong L, Xue H, et al. Gene-environment interaction in postpartum depression: a Chinese clinical study. J Affect Disord. 2014;165:208–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.04.049.
Zhang X, Wang L, Huang F, Li J, Xiong L, Xue H, et al. Evaluation of the promoter region polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) in the serotonin transporter gene in females with postpartum depression. Exp Ther Med. 2015;9(1):245–9. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2014.2043.
Fasching PA, Faschingbauer F, Goecke TW, Engel A, Haberle L, Seifert A, et al. Genetic variants in the tryptophan hydroxylase 2 gene (TPH2) and depression during and after pregnancy. J Psychiatr Res. 2012;46(9):1109–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.05.011.
Klein M, Schmoeger M, Kasper S, Schosser A. Meta-analysis of the COMT Val158Met polymorphism in major depressive disorder: the role of gender. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2016;17(2):147–58. https://doi.org/10.3109/15622975.2015.1083615.
Comasco E, Sylven SM, Papadopoulos FC, Sundstrom-Poromaa I, Oreland L, Skalkidou A. Postpartum depression symptoms: a case-control study on monoaminergic functional polymorphisms and environmental stressors. Psychiatr Genet. 2011;21(1):19–28. https://doi.org/10.1097/YPG.0b013e328341a3c1.
Shimizu E, Hashimoto K, Okamura N, Koike K, Komatsu N, Kumakiri C, et al. Alterations of serum levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in depressed patients with or without antidepressants. Biol Psychiatry. 2003;54(1):70–5.
Lang UE, Hellweg R, Gallinat J. BDNF serum concentrations in healthy volunteers are associated with depression-related personality traits. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2004;29(4):795–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1300382.
Bath KG, Chuang J, Spencer-Segal JL, Amso D, Altemus M, McEwen BS, et al. Variant brain-derived neurotrophic factor (Valine66Methionine) polymorphism contributes to developmental and estrous stage-specific expression of anxiety-like behavior in female mice. Biol Psychiatry. 2012;72(6):499–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.03.032.
Schmidt PJ, Nieman LK, Danaceau MA, Adams LF, Rubinow DR. Differential behavioral effects of gonadal steroids in women with and in those without premenstrual syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1998;338(4):209–16. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejm199801223380401.
Bloch M, Schmidt PJ, Danaceau M, Murphy J, Nieman L, Rubinow DR. Effects of gonadal steroids in women with a history of postpartum depression. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157(6):924–30. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.157.6.924.
Westberg L, Eriksson E. Sex steroid-related candidate genes in psychiatric disorders. J Psychiatry Neurosci: JPN. 2008;33(4):319–30.
Carter CS. Oxytocin pathways and the evolution of human behavior. Annu Rev Psychol. 2014;65:17–39. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115110.
Feldman R. Oxytocin and social affiliation in humans. Horm Behav. 2012;61(3):380–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.01.008.
Skrundz M, Bolten M, Nast I, Hellhammer DH, Meinlschmidt G. Plasma oxytocin concentration during pregnancy is associated with development of postpartum depression. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2011;36(9):1886–93. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2011.74.
Stuebe AM, Grewen K, Meltzer-Brody S. Association between maternal mood and oxytocin response to breastfeeding. J Women's Health (Larchmt). 2013;22(4):352–61. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2012.3768.
Meyer JH, Ginovart N, Boovariwala A, Sagrati S, Hussey D, Garcia A, et al. Elevated monoamine oxidase a levels in the brain: an explanation for the monoamine imbalance of major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006;63(11):1209–16. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.63.11.1209.
Naoi M, Maruyama W, Shamoto-Nagai M. Type A monoamine oxidase and serotonin are coordinately involved in depressive disorders: from neurotransmitter imbalance to impaired neurogenesis. J Neural Transm (Vienna, Austria : 1996). 2017; https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-017-1709-8.
• Guintivano J, Arad M, Gould TD, Payne JL, Kaminsky ZA. Antenatal prediction of postpartum depression with blood DNA methylation biomarkers. Mol Psychiatry. 2014;19(5):560–7. https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2013.62. Identifies two epigenetic biomarkers predictive of PPD during pregnancy.
• Osborne L, Clive M, Kimmel M, Gispen F, Guintivano J, Brown T, et al. Replication of epigenetic postpartum depression biomarkers and variation with hormone levels. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2015; https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2015.333. Validates two epigenetic biomarkers predictive of PPD during pregnancy.
Cao S, Iyer JK, Lin V. Identification of tetratricopeptide repeat domain 9, a hormonally regulated protein. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2006;345(1):310–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2006.04.091.
Nassa G, Tarallo R, Ambrosino C, Bamundo A, Ferraro L, Paris O, et al. A large set of estrogen receptor beta-interacting proteins identified by tandem affinity purification in hormone-responsive human breast cancer cell nuclei. Proteomics. 2011;11(1):159–65. https://doi.org/10.1002/pmic.201000344.
• Garfinkel BP, Arad S, Neuner SM, Netser S, Wagner S, Kaczorowski CC, et al. HP1BP3 expression determines maternal behavior and offspring survival. Genes Brain Behav. 2016;15(7):678–88. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12312. Links HP1BP3 (previously identified epigenetic biomarker of PPD) to maternal behavior in rodents.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
Katherine McEvoy, Lauren M. Osborne, and Julie Nanavati each declare no potential conflicts of interest.
Jennifer L. Payne holds a patent for the epigenetic biomarkers of postpartum depression. Dr. Payne reports a grant from SAGE Therapeutics and personal fees from Astra Zeneca, Eli Lilly, Johnson & Johnson, and Abbott Pharmaceuticals; and reports serving on the Relapse Adjudication Committee for Janssen Research & Development, LLC.
Human and Animal Rights
All reported studies/experiments with human or animal subjects performed by the authors have been previously published and complied with all applicable ethical standards (including the Helsinki declaration and its amendments, institutional/national research committee standards, and international/national/institutional guidelines).
Additional information
This article is part of the Topical Collection on Reproductive Psychiatry and Women’s Health
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
McEvoy, K., Osborne, L.M., Nanavati, J. et al. Reproductive Affective Disorders: a Review of the Genetic Evidence for Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder and Postpartum Depression. Curr Psychiatry Rep 19, 94 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-017-0852-0
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-017-0852-0