Skip to main content

Consensual Sadomasochistic Sex (BDSM): The Roots, the Risks, and the Distinctions Between BDSM and Violence

Current Psychiatry Reports volume 15, Article number: 392 (2013) Cite this article

Abstract

When practiced consensually, sadomasochistic sex is being increasingly accepted as an alternative sexuality. Here I suggest the possible evolutionary roots of the preferences, draw distinctions between violent, abusive and “healthy” practitioners’ partnership, provide clear behavioural markers of the respective situations, and underline some specific problems connected to this sexual preference. Some of the problems are well-known in the community of its practitioners, although they have not yet been described in medical nor scientific sources.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price includes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1

References

Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: • Of importance •• Of major importance

  1. •• Revise F65. ICD revision available at White Paper. http://wwwrevisef65org/icd_whitepaper html. Accessed June 2013. The purpose of Revise F65 committee (a subsidiary of LLH, the Norwegian LGBT Association with a mandate from the international lesbian and gay movement [ILGA 1999], the European leather club confederation [ECMC 2000], and the federal German SM organization [BVSM e.V. 2004]) is to remove fetishism, transvestism, and sadomasochism as psychiatric diagnoses from the ICD (International Classification of Diseases). Revise F65 1) informed BDSMers and the general public about revision processes and 2) prepared White Paper for WHO (World Health Organization) to remove the diagnoses.

  2. •• American Psychiatric Association. Paraphilic disorders DSM-5 fact sheet. Available at http://www.psychiatryorg/dsm5. Accessed June 2013. This webpage provides a fact sheet of the DSM-5 changes.

  3. •• Moran M. DSM to distinguish paraphilias from paraphilic disorders. Psychiatric News. 2013;48:261. Moran explains why to distinguish paraphilias from paraphilic disorders.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Connolly PH, Haley H, Gendelman J, Miller J. Psychological functioning of bondage/domination/sado-masochism (BDSM) practitioners. J Psychol Hum Sex. 2006;18:79–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Richters J, de Visser R, Grulich A, Rissel C. Demographic and psychosocial features of participants in BDSM sex: data from a national survey. J Sex Res. 2008;45:98–9.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Sandnabba NK, Santtila P, Alison L, Nordling N. Demographic, sexual behaviour, family background and abuse experiences of practitioners of sadomasochistic sex: a review of recent research. Sex Relatsh Ther. 2002;17:39–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Ernulf KE, Innala SM. Sexual bondage - a review and unobtrusive investigation. Arch Sex Behav. 1995;24:631–54.

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Cross PA, Matheson K. Understanding sadomasochism: an empirical examination of four perspectives. J Homosexual. 2006;50:133–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Kolmes K, Stock W, Moser C. Investigating bias in psychotherapy with BDSM clients. J Homosexual. 2006;50:301–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Richters J, Grulich AE, de Vieser RO, et al. Sex in Australia: autoerotic, esoteric and other sexual practices engaged in by a representative sample of adults. Aust NZ J Pub Heal. 2003;27:180–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Weinberg TS. Sadomasochism and the social sciences: a review of the sociological and social psychological literature. J Homosexual. 2006;50:17–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Newmahr S. Power struggles: pain and authenticity in SM play. Symb Interact. 2010;33:389–411.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Weinberg MS, Wiliams CJ, Moser C. The social constituents of sadomasochism. Soc Probl. 1984;31:379–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. •• Powls J, Davies J. A descriptive review of research relating to sadomasochism: considerations for clinical practice. Deviant Behav. 2012;33:223–34. This paper reviews the latest findings about BDSM.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Henkin WA, Holiday S. Consensual sadomasochism. Los Angeles: Deadalus Publishing Company; 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Wright S. Second national survey of violence & discrimination against sexual minorities. Available at https://ncsfreedomorg/images/stories/pdfs/BDSM_Survey/2008_bdsm_survey_analysis_final pdf. Accessed June 2013.

  17. •• Bezreh T, Weinberg TS, Eedgar T. BDSM disclosure and stigma management: identifying opportunities for sex education. American J of Sex Ed. 2012;7:37–61. Bezreh and colelagues analyzed risk factors involved with BDSM disclosure. They described risks of the dislosure and suggest ideas for education and stigma management.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Sandnabba NK, Santtila P, Nordling N. Sexual behavior and social adaptation among sadomasochistically-oriented males. J Sex Res. 1999;36:273–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. •• Jozifkova E, Bartos L, Flegr J. Evolutional background of dominance/submissivity in sex and bondage: the two strategies? Neuroendocrinol Lett. 2012;33:636–42. Jozifkova and colleagues suggest that the BDSM behavior is derived from natural reproduction strategy.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. •• Jozifkova E, Konvicka M. Sexual arousal by higher- and lower-ranking partner: manifestation of a mating strategy? Sex Med. 2009;6:3327–34. The sexual arousal by overemphasized hierarchy may represent manifestation of natural human behavior.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Jozifkova E. BDSM, SM, D/s v otazkach a odpovedich 2008. Available at http://www.en-knet/questions/. Accessed June 2013.

  22. • Newmahr S. Rethinking kink: sadomasochism as serious leisure. Qual Sociol. 2010;33:313–31. Newmahr describes behavior and feelings of pratitioners participating in BDSM sex in the BDSM community semipublic clubs.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Dupanloup I, Pereira L, Bertorelle G, et al. A recent shift from polygyny to monogamy in humans is suggested by the analysis of worldwide Y-chromosome diversity. J Mol Evol. 2003;57:85–97.

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Gibson MA, Mace R. Polygyny, reproductive success and child health in rural Ethiopia: why marry a married man? J Biosoc Sci. 2007;39:287–300.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Mealey L. The relationship between social status and biological success: a case study of the Mormon religious hierarchy. Ethol Sociobiol. 1985;6:249–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Fieder M, Huber S, Bookstein FL, et al. Status and reproduction in humans: new evidence for the validity of evolutionary explanations on basis of a university sample. Ethology. 2005;111:940–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Perusse D. Cultural and reproductive success in industrial-societies - testing the relationship at the proximate and ultimate levels. Behav Brain Sci. 1993;16:267–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Buss DM, Shackelford TK. Attractive women want it all: good genes, economic investment, parenting proclivities, and emotional commitment. Evol Psychol-US. 2008;6:134–46.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Lammers J, Stoker JI, Jordan J, et al. Power increases infidelity among men and women. Psychol Sci. 2011;22:1191–7.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Greitemeyer T. What do men and women want in a partner? Are educated partners always more desirable? J Exp Soc Psychol. 2007;43:180–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Taborsky M. Sneakers, satellites, and helpers - parasitic and cooperative behavior in fish reproduction. Adv Stud Behav. 1994;23:1–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Taborsky M. The evolution of bourgeois, parasitic, and cooperative reproductive behaviors in fishes. J Hered. 2001;92:100–10.

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Dominey WJ. Alternative mating tactics and evolutionarily stable strategies. Am Zool. 1984;24:385–96.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Healey MC, Prince A. Alternative tactics in the breeding behaviour of male coho salmon. Behaviour. 1998;135:1099–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Newmahr S. Playing on the sadomasochism, risk, and intimacy. Edge: Indiana University Press; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Sagarin BJ, Cutler B, Cutler N, et al. Hormonal changes and couple bonding in consensual sadomasochistic activity. Arch Sex Behav. 2009;38:186–200.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  37. • Moskowitz DA, Seal DW, Rintamaki L, Rieger G. HIV in the leather community: rates and risk-related behaviors. AIDS Behav. 2011;15:557–64. This paper focuses on leathermen HIV rates and sexual behaviour.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  38. •• Revise F65. SM versus abuse. Available at http://www.revisef65org/violence html. Accessed June 2013. Revise F65 compiled this “SM versus violence“web page. Because of Revise F65, “the biggest difference between a violent sadist and an SM master is that the former destroys the self-confidence”.

  39. Nordling N, Sandnabba NK, Santilla PV. The prevalence and effects on self-reported childhood sexula abuse among sadomasochistically oriented males and females. J Child Sex Abus. 2000;9.

  40. Neighbors CJ, O'Leary A, Labouvie E. Domestically violent and nonviolent male inmates' responses to their partners' requests for condom use: testing a social-information processing model. Health Psychol. 1999;18:427–31.

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Allan S, Gilbert P. Submissive behaviour and psychopathology. Brit J Clin Psychol. 1997;36:467–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Klofstad CA, Anderson RC, Peters S. Sounds like a winner: voice pitch influences perception of leadership capacity in both men and women. P Roy Soc B-Biol Sci. 2012;279:2698–704.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Buss DM, Craik KH. The frequency concept of disposition - dominance and prototypically dominant. Acts J Pers. 1980;48:379–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Goldberg LR. A broad-bandwidth, public domain, personality inventory measuring the lower-level facets of several five-factor models. In: Mervielde I, Deary I, De Fruyt F, Tilburg OF, editors. Personality psychology in Europe. Tilburg University Press; 1999:7–28.

  45. Dunbar NE, Abra G. Observations of dyadic power in interpersonal interaction. Commun Monogr. 2010;77:657–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Women's aid. Domestic violence: frequently asked quiestionsfactsheet 2009. Available at http://www.womensaidorguk/. Accessed June 2013.

  47. Wikipedia. Dominance and submission. Safety. Available at http://enwikipediaorg/wiki/Domination_%26_submission_%28BDSM%29. Accessed June 2013.

  48. Rohr HP: Narcismus - vnitrni zalar. Praha: Portal s.r.o.; 2001. From original Narzißmus. Das innere Gefängnis., Germany, Patmos Verlag GmbHCo&KG.co, Narzißmus. Das innere Gefängnis Patmos Verlag GmbHCo&KG.co, 1999. Translated to English: Narcisim. Escaping from the Inner Prison. Germany: Pamtos; 2012.

  49. Carrington K, Phillips J. Domestic violence in Australia an overview of the issues. Available at http://www.aphgovau/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/Publications_Archive/archive/Domviolence. Accessed June 2013.

  50. National Center on Domestic and Sexual Violence. Power and control wheel. Available at http://www.ncdsvorg/images/Power_and_Control_wheel_NCDSVpdf. Accessed June 2013.

  51. Krienert JL, Walsh JA, Matthews K, McConkey K. Examining the nexus between domestic violence and animal abuse in a national sample of service providers. Violence Vict. 2012;27:280–95.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Tiplady CM, Walsh DB, Phillips CJC. Intimate partner violence and companion animal welfare. Aust Vet J. 2012;90:48–53.

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Wikipedia. Cycle of abuse. Available at http://enwikipediaorg/wiki/Cycle_of_abuse#cite_ref-Walker_1-1. Accessed June 2013.

  54. Dancer PL, Kleinplatz PJ, Moser C. 24/7 SM slavery. J Homosex. 2006;50:81–101.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Maner JK, Miller SL, Schmidt NB, Eckel LA. Submitting to defeat - social anxiety, dominance threat, and decrements in testosterone. Psychol Sci. 2008;19:764–8.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Mehta PH, Josephs RA. Testosterone and cortisol jointly regulate dominance: evidence for a dual-hormone hypothesis. Horm Behav. 2010;58:898–906.

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Timmer M, Cordero MI, Sevelinges Y, Sandi C. Evidence for a role of oxytocin receptors in the long-term establishment of dominance hierarchies. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2011;36:2349–56.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Gilbert P, Miles JNV. Sensitivity to social put-down: it's relationship to perceptions of social rank, shame, social anxiety, depression, anger and self-other blame. Pers Indiv Differ. 2000;29:757–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Alison L, Santilla P, Sandnabba NK, Nordling N. Sadomasochistically oriented behavior: diversity in practice and meaning. Arch Sex Behav. 2001;30:1–12.

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Leonard S, Steiger H, Kao A. Childhood and adulthood abuse in bulimic and nonbulimic women: prevalences and psychological correlates. Int J Eat Disorder. 2003;33:397–405.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Durkin KF. Show me the money: cybershrews and on-line money masochists. Deviant Behav. 2007;28:355–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Wikipedia. Risk-aware consensual kink. Available at http://enwikipediaorg/wiki/Risk-aware_consensual_kink. Accessed June 2013.

Download references

Acknowledgments

Help with English corrections provided by Martina Kolackova, Msc, from the Charles University in Prague; Martin Konvicka, PhD, from the University of South Bohemia; and Matthew Sweney, PhD, is highly appreciated. This study was supported by grant P407/12/P616 from the Czech Science Foundation (GACR).

Compliance with Ethics Guidelines

ᅟ

Conflict of Interest

Eva Jozifkova declares that she has no conflict of interest.

Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent

This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by the author.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, J.E. Purkynje University in Usti nad Labem, Za valcovnou 1000/8, Usti nad Labem, 400 96, Czech Republic

    Eva Jozifkova

Authors
  1. Eva Jozifkova
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Eva Jozifkova.

Additional information

This article is part of the Topical Collection on Sexual Disorders

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Jozifkova, E. Consensual Sadomasochistic Sex (BDSM): The Roots, the Risks, and the Distinctions Between BDSM and Violence. Curr Psychiatry Rep 15, 392 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-013-0392-1

Download citation

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-013-0392-1

Keywords

  • Consensual sadomasochistic sex
  • BDSM
  • Violence
  • Domestic violence
  • Abuse
  • Sexual disorders
  • Psychiatry
  • Sadomasochism
  • Sadism
  • Masochism
  • Sex
  • Dominance
  • Submission
  • Submissiveness
  • Bondage
  • Intimate partner violence
  • Evolutionary biology
  • Psychology
  • Social hierarchy
  • Hierarchy
  • Minority
  • Sexual practices
  • Paraphilia
  • ICD
  • DSM-5