Abstract
The role of the stroke units in improving morbidity, mortality, and recovery from stroke is clearly demonstrated. However, acute management of language disorders in these specialized units remains controversial, and management of swallowing disorders is usually nonstandardized. The recent validation of a scale for rapid screening of language disorders (LAST [Language Screening Test]) in acute stroke patients should allow optimization of their detection and early management. Swallowing disorders should be screened and managed using a standardized protocol. Following early initial evaluation repeated on a daily basis, they justify tailored rehabilitation sessions, adaptation of food textures, team formation, and families’ information. The use of these protocols implies the cooperation and coordination of the medical and paramedical teams and the daily presence of speech therapists. These aspects are crucial for patients in the stroke units to achieve full benefits from the management proposed in this paper, leading to diminution of complications and better long-term functional prognosis.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: • Of importance •• Of major importance
Murray CJ, Lopez AD. Global mortality, disability, and the contribution of risk factors: global burden of disease study. Lancet. 1997;349:1436–42.
Sudlow CLM, MRCP(UK), Warlow CP, FRCP; for the International Stroke Incidence Collaboration. Comparable studies of the incidence of stroke and its pathological types results from an international collaboration. Stroke. 1997;28:491–9.
Indredavik B, Bakke F, Solberg R, et al. Benefit of a stroke unit: a randomized controlled trial. Stroke. 1991;22(8):1026–31.
Indredavik B, Bakke F, Slordahl SA, et al. Stroke unit treatment improves long-term quality of life: a randomized controlled trial. Stroke. 1998;29(5):895–9.
Kalra L. The influence of stroke unit rehabilitation on functional recovery from stroke. Stroke. 1994;25(4):821–5.
Engelter ST, Gostynski M, Papa S, et al. Epidemiology of aphasia attributable to first ischemic stroke: incidence, severity, fluency, etiology, and thrombolysis. Stroke. 2006;37(6):1379–84.
Godefroy O, Dubois C, Debachy B, et al. Vascular aphasias: main characteristics of patients hospitalized in acute stroke units. Stroke. 2002;33(3):702–5.
Inatomi Y, Yonehara T, Omiya S, et al. Aphasia during the acute phase in ischemic stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2008;25(4):316–23.
Pedersen PM, Vinter K, Olsen TS. Aphasia after stroke: type, severity and prognosis. The copenhagen aphasia study. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2004;17(1):35–43.
Croquelois A, Bogousslavsky J. Stroke aphasia: 1,500 consecutive cases. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2011;31(4):392–9.
Urban PP, Wicht S, Vukurevic G, et al. Dysarthria in acute ischemic stroke. Lesion topography, clinicoradiologic correlation, and etiology. Neurology. 2001;56:1021–7.
Laska AC, Hellblom A, Murray V, et al. Aphasia in acute stroke and relation to outcome. J Intern Med. 2001;249(5):413–22.
Hilari K. The impact of stroke: are people with aphasia different to those without? Disabil Rehabil. 2011;33(3):211–8.
Berthier ML. Poststroke aphasia: epidemiology, pathophysiology and treatment. Drugs Aging. 2005;22(2):163–82.
Black-Schaffer RM, Osberg JS. Return to work after stroke: development of a predictive model. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1990;71(5):285–90.
Kauhanen ML, Korpelainen JT, Hiltunen P, et al. Aphasia, depression, and non-verbal cognitive impairment in ischaemic stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2000;10(6):455–61.
Urban PP, Rolke R, Wicht S, et al. Left hemispheric dominance for articulation: a prospective study on acute ischemaic dysarthria at different localizations. Brain. 2006;129:767–77.
Mackenzie C. Dysathria in stroke: a narrative review of its description and the outcome of intervention. Int J Speech Lang Pathol. 2011;13(2):125–36.
Brady MC, Clark AM, Dickson S, et al. The impact of stroke-related dysarthria on social participation and implications for rehabilitation. Disabil Rehabil. 2011;33(3):178–86.
Doesborgh SJ, van de Sandt-Koenderman WM, Dippel DW, et al. Linguistic deficits in the acute phase of stroke. J Neurol. 2003;250(8):977–82.
Code C. Multifactorial processes in recovery from aphasia: developing the foundations for a multileveled framework. Brain Lang. 2001;77(1):25–44.
Salter K, Jutai J, Foley N, et al. Identification of aphasia post stroke: a review of screening assessment tools. Brain Inj. 2006;20(6):559–68.
Laska AC, Bartfai A, Hellblom A, et al. Clinical and prognostic properties of standardized and functional aphasia assessments. J Rehabil Med. 2007;39:387–92.
Kertesz A. The western aphasia battery. New York: Edited by Grune and Stratton; 1982.
Goodglass H, Kaplan E: The assessment of aphasia and related disorders. 2nd ed. Edited by Lea and Febiger, 2nd, editor. Philadelphia; 1983.
Nicholas LE, Brookshire RH, Macleenan DL, et al. Revised administration and scoring procedures for the Boston naming test and norms for non-brain-damaged adults. Aphasiology. 1989;3:569–80.
Cote R, Hachinski VC, Shurvell BL, et al. The Canadian neurological scale: a preliminary study in acute stroke. Stroke. 1986;17:731–7.
Brott T, Adams Jr HP, Olinger CP, et al. Measurements of acute cerebral infarction: a clinical examination scale. Stroke. 1989;20:864–70.
Gotoh F, Terayama Y, Amano T. Development of a novel, weighted, quantifiable stroke scale: Japan stroke scale. Stroke. 2001;32:1800–7.
Scandinavian Stroke Study Group. Multicenter trial of hemodilution in ischemic stroke–background and study protocol. Stroke. 1985;16:885–90.
Adams RJ, Meador KJ, Sethi KD, et al. Graded neurologic scale for use in acute hemispheric stroke treatment protocols. Stroke. 1987;18:665–9.
Orgogozo JM, Capildeo R, Anagnostou CN, et al. Mise au point d’un score neurologique pour l’évaluation clinique des infarctus sylviens. Presse Med. 1983;12:3039–44.
Crary MA, Haak NJ, Malinsky AE. Preliminary psychometric evaluation of an acute aphasia screening protocol. Aphasiology. 1989;3:611–8.
Enderby PM, Wood VA, Wade DT, Hewer RL. The Frenchay aphasia screening test: a short, simple test for aphasia appropriate for non-specialists. Int Rehabil Med. 1987;8:166–70.
Nakase-Thompson R, Manning E, Sherer M, et al. Brief assessment of severe language impairments: initial validation of the Mississippi aphasia screening test. Brain Inj. 2005;19:685–91.
Reitan RM, Wolfson D. The halstead-reitan neuropsychological test battery: theory and clinical interpretation. Tucson: Neuropsychology Press; 1985.
Reinvang I, Engvik H: Manual of the norwegian basic aphasia assessement Oslo: Scandinavian University Books; 1980.
Sabe L, Courtis MJ, Saavedra MM, et al. Desarrollo y validación de una batería corta de evaluación de la afasia: “Bedside de lenguaje”. Utilización en un centro de rehabilitación. Rev Neurol. 2008;46:454–60.
Blomert L, Kean ML, Koster C, Scokker J. Amsterdam nijmegen every day langage test: construction, reliability and validity. Aphasiology. 1994;8:381–407.
Biniek R, Huber W, Willmes K, et al. Ein test zur erfassung von sprach- und sprechtstörungen in der akutphase nach schlaganfällen: aufbau und durchführung. Nervenarzt. 1991;62:108–15.
Enderby P, editor. Frenchay dysarthria assessment. San Diego: College-Hill press; 1983.
Flamand-Roze C, Cauquil-Michon C, Roze E, et al.: Aphasia in border-zone infarcts has a specific initial pattern and good long-term prognosis. Eur J Neurol 2011. In press.
Cauquil C, Flamand-Roze C, Denier C: Borderzone strokes and transcortical aphasia. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2011 Sep 9; in press.
•• Flamand-Roze C, Falissard B, Roze E, et al.: Validation of a new language screening tool for patients with acute stroke: the Language Screening Test (LAST). Stroke 2011;42(5):1224–9. This paper describes a new reliable tool for assessment of language in the acute phase of stroke; this easy-to-perform test can improve care of patients with aphasia.
Musso M, Weiller C, Kiebel S, et al. Training-induced brain plasticity in aphasia. Brain. 1999;122(Pt 9):1781–90.
• Lazar RM, Minzer B, Antoniello D, et al.: Improvement in aphasia scores after stroke is well predicted by initial severity. Stroke 2010;41(7):1485–8. Although the only predictive factor of language recovery is the initial severity of stroke, the authors report that improvement is correlated with initial deficiency and estimated at about 70% of initial deficiency at 90 days.
Kreisel SH, Bazner H, Hennerici MG. Pathophysiology of stroke rehabilitation: temporal aspects of neuro-functional recovery. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2006;21(1–2):6–17.
•• Berthier ML, Pulvermüller F: Neuroscience insights improve neurorehabilitation of poststroke aphasia. Nat Rev Neurol 2011;7(2):86–97. This article describes the neuronal aspects of language recovery in the setting stroke and the role of rehabilitation.
Saur D, Lange R, Baumgaertner A, et al. Dynamics of language reorganization after stroke. Brain. 2006;129(Pt 6):1371–84.
Reineck LA, Agarwal S, Hillis AE. “Diffusion-clinical mismatch” is associated with potential for early recovery of aphasia. Neurology. 2005;64(5):828–33.
Schlaug G, Marchina S, Norton A. Evidence for plasticity in white-matter tracts of patients with chronic Broca’s aphasia undergoing intense intonation-based speech therapy. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2009;1169:385–94.
Naeser MA, Palumbo CL. Neuroimaging and language recovery in stroke. J Clin Neurophysiol. 1994;11(2):150–74.
Winhuisen L, Thiel A, Schumacher B, et al. Role of the contralateral inferior frontal gyrus in recovery of language function in poststroke aphasia: a combined repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and positron emission tomography study. Stroke. 2005;36(8):1759–63.
Cicerone KD, Dahlberg C, Malec JF, et al. Evidence-based cognitive rehabilitation: updated review of the literature from 1998 through 2002. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2005;86(8):1681–92.
•• Kelly H, Brady MC, Enderby P: Speech and language therapy for aphasia following stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010;(5):CD000425. The authors review the literature evidence for speech and language therapies according to their different modalities (type, timing, and intensity) following stroke.
Langhorne P, Bernhardt J, Kwakkel G. Stroke rehabilitation. Lancet. 2011;377(9778):1693–702.
Bhogal SK, Teasell R, Speechley M. Intensity of aphasia therapy, impact on recovery. Stroke. 2003;34(4):987–93.
•• Godecke E, Hird K, Lalor EE, et al.: Very early poststroke aphasia therapy: a pilot randomized controlled efficacy trial. Int J Stroke 2011 Oct 6; in press. This study demonstrates the feasibility of randomized controlled trials for speech therapy in acute stroke and, in this case, the benefits of early and intensive speech therapy.
Marshall RC. The impact of intensity of aphasia therapy on recovery. Stroke. 2008;39(2):e48. author reply e9.
• Laska AC, Kahan T, Hellblom A, et al.: A randomized controlled trial on very early speech and language therapy in acute stroke patients with aphasia. Cerebrovascular Disease 2011:in press. The authors demonstrate the feasibility of randomized controlled trials for SLT in very early acute stroke settings.
Sellars C, Hughes T, Langhorne P. Speech and language therapy for dysarthria due to non-progressive brain damage (review). Cochrane Database Sysr Rev. 2005;20(3):CD002088.
Hamilton RH, Chrysikou EG, Coslett B. Mechanisms of aphasia recovery after stroke and the role of noninvasive brain stimulation. Brain Lang. 2011;118(1–2):40–50.
Sarkamo T, Tervaniemi M, Laitinen S, et al. Music listening enhances cognitive recovery and mood after middle cerebral artery stroke. Brain. 2008;131(Pt 3):866–76.
Yorkston KM, Spencer KA, Duffy JR. Behavioral management of respiratory/phonatory dysfunction from dysarthria: a systematic review of the evidence. J Med Speech-Lang Pathol. 2003;11(2):13–38.
Nestell R. Physiological studies of dysarthria and their relevance to treatment. In: Rosenbeck JC, editor. Seminars in language. New York: Thieme-Stratton; 1984. p. 279–92.
Gordon C, Hewer RL, Wade DT. Dysphagia in acute stroke. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1987;295(6595):411–4.
Ickenstein GW, Hohlig C, Prosiegel M, et al.: Prediction of Outcome in Neurogenic Oropharyngeal Dysphagia Within 72 Hours of Acute Stroke. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2011.
Lakshminarayan K, Tsai AW, Tong X, et al. Utility of dysphagia screening results in predicting poststroke pneumonia. Stroke. 2010;41(12):2849–54.
Mann G, Hankey GJ, Cameron D. Swallowing function after stroke: prognosis and prognostic factors at 6 months. Stroke. 1999;30(4):744–8.
Martino R, Foley N, Bhogal S, et al. Dysphagia after stroke: incidence, diagnosis, and pulmonary complications. Stroke. 2005;36(12):2756–63.
Robbins J, Levine RL, Maser A, et al. Swallowing after unilateral stroke of the cerebral cortex. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1993;74(12):1295–300.
Smithard DG, O’Neill PA, Parks C, Morris J. Complications and outcome after acute stroke. Does dysphagia matter? Stroke. 1996;27(7):1200–4.
Singh S, Hamdy S. Dysphagia in stroke patients. Postgrad Med J. 2006;82(968):383–91.
Steinhagen V, Grossmann A, Benecke R, Walter U. Swallowing disturbance pattern relates to brain lesion location in acute stroke patients. Stroke. 2009;40(5):1903–6.
Walter U, Knoblich R, Steinhagen V, et al. Predictors of pneumonia in acute stroke patients admitted to a neurological intensive care unit. J Neurol. 2007;254(10):1323–9.
Shaker R, Geenen JE. Management of dysphagia in stroke patients. Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2011;7(5):308–32.
Daniels SK, Brailey K, Foundas AL. Lingual discoordination and dysphagia following acute stroke: analyses of lesion localization. Dysphagia. 1999;14(2):85–92.
Kwon M, Lee JH, Kim JS. Dysphagia in unilateral medullary infarction: lateral vs medial lesions. Neurology. 2005;65(5):714–8.
Flowers HL, Skoretz SA, Streiner DL, et al. MRI-based neuroanatomical predictors of dysphagia after acute ischemic stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2011;32(1):1–10.
Paciaroni M, Mazzota G, Corea F, et al. Dysphagia following stroke. Eur Neurol. 2004;51:162–7.
Finlayson O, Kapral M, Hall R, et al. Risk factors, inpatient care, and outcomes of pneumonia after ischemic stroke. Neurology. 2011;77(14):1338–45.
Mann G, Hankey GJ. Initial clinical and demographic predictors of swallowing impairment following acute stroke. Dysphagia. 2001;16(3):208–15.
•• Martino R, Silver F, Teasell R, et al.: The Toronto Bedside Swallowing Screening Test (TOR-BSST): development and validation of a dysphagia screening tool for patients with stroke. Stroke 2009;40(2):555–61. This paper describes a practical and easy-to-perform test for assessment of swallowing disorders in acute stroke; this may have an impact on patient care with reduction of morbimortality and better planning of rehabilitation.
Schrock JW, Bernsteim J, Glasenapp M, et al. A novel emergency department dysphagia screen for patients presenting with acute stroke. Acad Emerg Med. 2011;18(6):584–9.
Barritt AW, Smithard DG. Role of cerebral cortex plasticity in the recovery of swallowing function following dysphagic stroke. Dysphagia. 2009;24(1):83–90.
Teismann IK, Suntrup S, Warnecke T, et al. Cortical swallowing processing in early subacute stroke. BMC Neurol. 2011;11:34.
Hinchey JA, Shephard T, Furie K, et al. Formal dysphagia screening protocols prevent pneumonia. Stroke. 2005;36(9):1972–6.
Disclosure
No potential conflicts of interest relevant to this article were reported.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Flamand-Roze, C., Cauquil-Michon, C. & Denier, C. Tools and Early Management of Language and Swallowing Disorders in Acute Stroke Patients. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 12, 34–41 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11910-011-0241-8
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11910-011-0241-8