Abstract
The chemical composition of the atmospheric bulk deposition is a good indicator of atmospheric pollution and air quality. Bulk deposition is a collective term for wet deposition in the forms of rain, snowfall, fog, hail, or ice crystals and dry deposition of atmospheric chemical components mainly under the gravitational settling. The objective of the study was to quantitatively determine rainwater quality parameters, using standard procedures, in selected areas of Sri Lanka. Analysis of weekly sampling of bulk deposition in three sampling sites in Divulapitiya, Kandy, and University of Peradeniya (UOP) of Sri Lanka performed for a period of 24 weeks from 08th of February 2022 to 19th of July 2022 indicated that the three sites had 16.7%, 8.7%, and 8.3% dry-only depositions, respectively; with rainfall levels of 30.2 ± 37.4 mm, 30.6 ± 32.6 mm, and 33.7 ± 39.8 mm; and volume-weighted mean (VWM) pH values of 6.23, 6.29, and 6.47, respectively. Acidic deposition events below pH 5.60 level were not recorded from any site. Chloride (Cl−) was determined to be the predominant anion, and the VWM of anions varied in the order of NO3− < SO42− < Cl− in all three sites. Among trace metals investigated, Fe, Zn, and Al were predominant. Moreover, a very strong positive correlation for conductivity, total dissolved solids, and salinity among each parameter, was observed in the Pearson correlation analysis for all sites. Divulapitiya area showed low air pollution levels with respect to chemical and physical parameters determined in the study as compared to Kandy and UOP areas. Possible causes for the results would be vehicular, constructional, and industrial emissions, and natural geographical factors.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author, N. Priyantha, upon request.
References
Abeyratne V, Ileperuma O (2006) Air pollution monitoring in the city of Kandy: possible transboundary effects. J Natl Sci Found 34(3):137. https://doi.org/10.4038/jnsfsr.v34i3.3644
Araujo TG, Souza MF, Mello WZ, Silva DM (2015) Bulk atmospheric deposition of major ions and dissolved organic nitrogen in the lower course of a Tropical River basin, Southern Bahia, Brazil. Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society 26(8):1692–1701. https://doi.org/10.5935/0103-5053.20150143
Baird R, Eaton A, Rice E, Bridgewater L (2017) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 23rd edn, pp. 166–167
Bisht DS, Srivastava AK, Singh V, Tiwari S, Gautam AS, Gautam S, Santosh M, Kumar S (2022) High-altitude air pollutants monitored from rainwater chemistry in the Central Himalaya. Water Air Soil Pollut 233(9). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-022-05855-8
Chathuranga R, Liyandeniya A, Dharmapriya T, Deeyamulla M, Priyantha N (2020). Risk assessment and source apportionment of wet bulk deposition in three typical sites of Gampaha District, Sri Lanka. SN Appl Sci 2(8). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3007-6
Chathurika JAS, Indraratne SP, Dandeniya WS (2015) Site specific fertilizer recommendations for maize (Zea mays L.) grown in reddish brown earth and reddish brown Latasolic soils. Trop Agric Res 25(3):287. https://doi.org/10.4038/tar.v25i3.8039
Domroes M, Ranatunge E (1993) A statistical approach towards a regionalization of daily rainfall in Sri Lanka. Int J Climatol 13(7):741–754. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.3370130704
Du X, Jin X, Zucker N, Kennedy R, Urpelainen J (2020) Transboundary air pollution from coal-fired power generation. Journal of Environmental Management 270:110862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110862
Duan L, Yu Q, Zhang Q, Wang Z, Pan Y, Larssen T et al (2016) Acid deposition in Asia: emissions, deposition, and ecosystem effects. Atmos Environ 146:55–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.07.018
Gautam S, Sammuel C, Bhardwaj A, Shams Esfandabadi Z, Santosh M, Gautam AS, Joshi A, Justin A, John Wessley GJ, James EJ (2021) Vertical profiling of atmospheric air pollutants in rural India: a case study on particulate matter (PM10/PM2.5/PM1), carbon dioxide, and formaldehyde. Measurement 185:110061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2021.110061
Glavas S, Moschonas N (2002) Origin of observed acidic–alkaline rains in a wet-only precipitation study in a Mediterranean coastal site, Patras, Greece. Atmos Environ 36(19):3089–3099. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1352-2310(02)00262-5
Gonçalves F, Morinobu W, Andrade M, Fornaro A (2007) In-cloud and below-cloud scavenging analysis of sulfate in the metropolitan area of São Paulo, Brasil. Rev Bras Meteorol 22(1):94–104. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0102-77862007000100010
Gupta V, Bisht L, Arya AK, Singh AP, Gautam S (2022a) Spatially resolved distribution, sources, exposure levels, and health risks of heavy metals in <63 μm size-fractionated road dust from Lucknow City, North India. Int J Environ Res Public Health 19(19):12898. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912898
Gupta V, Bisht L, Deep A, Gautam S (2022b) Spatial distribution, pollution levels, and risk assessment of potentially toxic metals in road dust from major tourist city, Dehradun, Uttarakhand India. Stoch Environ Res Risk Assess 36(10):3517–3533. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00477-022-02207-0
Holopainen E, Kokkola H, Laakso A, Kühn T (2020) In-cloud scavenging scheme for sectional aerosol modules – implementation in the framework of the sectional aerosol module for large scale applications version 2.0 (SALSA2.0) global aerosol module. Geosci Model Dev 13(12):6215–6235. https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-6215-2020
Ileperuma O (2015) Model assessment of acid deposition potential by SOx in Sri Lanka. J Natl Sci Found 43(3):281. https://doi.org/10.4038/jnsfsr.v43i3.7956
Jayalath KG, Deeyamulla MP, De Silva RCL (2021) A comparison of heavy metal deposition in two metropolitan areas in Western Province of Sri Lanka using the moss biomonitoring method. Res J Chem Environ 25:2
Kajino M, Aikawa M (2015) A model validation study of the washout/rainout contribution of sulfate and nitrate in wet deposition compared with precipitation chemistry data in Japan. Atmos Environ 117:124–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.06.042
Kampa M, Castanas E (2008) Human health effects of air pollution. Environ Pollut 151(2):362–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2007.06.012
Larssen T, Seip HM, Semb A, Mulder J, Muniz IP, Vogt RD, Eilertsen O (1999) Acid deposition and its effects in China: an overview. Environ Sci Policy 2(1):9–24
Liyandeniya A, Deeyamulla M, Priyantha N (2020b) Source apportionment of rainwater chemical composition in wet precipitation at Kelaniya in Sri Lanka. Air Qual Atmos Health 13(12):1497–1504. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-020-00903-w
Liyandeniya A, Deeyamulla M, Priyantha N (2020a) Atmospheric chemical composition of bulk deposition at two geographically distinct locations in Sri Lanka. Environ Monit Assess 192(7). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-020-08412-0
Liyandeniya A, Deeyamulla M, Abeysundara S, Priyantha N (2020c) Chemical characteristics of wet precipitation at Peradeniya in Sri Lanka. Environ Monit Assess 193(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-020-08772-7
Lovett G, Kinsman J (1990) Atmospheric pollutant deposition to high-elevation ecosystems. Atmos Environ A Gen Top 24(11):2767–2786. https://doi.org/10.1016/0960-1686(90)90164-i
Madhushani LS, Dharmapriya TN, Dharaka BDP, Deeyamulla MP, Priyantha N (2023) Chemical composition of rainwater at three sites in Kandy/Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, and its effect on air pollution. Energy Nexus 100243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nexus.2023.100243
Migliavacca D, Teixeira E, Wiegand F, Machado A, Sanchez J (2005) Atmospheric precipitation and chemical composition of an urban site, Guaıba hydrographic basin, Brazil. Atmos Environ 39(10):1829–1844. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.12.005
Mohamed AA, Kombo UM, Kombo MA (2019) Rain water characterization at urban and rural (north B) Unguja. Hydro Sci Marine Eng 1(2). https://doi.org/10.30564/hsme.v1i2.1494
Payus CM, Jikilim C, Sentian J (2020) Rainwater chemistry of acid precipitation occurrences due to long-range transboundary haze pollution and prolonged drought events during Southwest Monsoon season: climate change driven. Heliyon 6(9):e04997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04997
Rathnayaka I, Dharmapriya T, Liyandeniya A, Deeyamulla M, Priyantha N (2020) Trace metal composition of bulk precipitation in selected locations of Kandy district, Sri Lanka. Water Air Soil Pollut 231(10). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-020-04840-3
Le Roux G, Hansson SV, Claustres A (2016) Inorganic Chemistry in the Mountain Critical Zone. Developments in Earth Surface Processes 21:131–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-63787-1.00003-2
Samaradiwakara DS, Pitawala HM (2021) Extent of air pollution in Kandy area, Sri Lanka: morphological, mineralogical and chemical characterization of dust. Ceylon J Sci 50(4):475. https://doi.org/10.4038/cjs.v50i4.7946
Seinfeld J, Pandis S (2016) Atmospheric chemistry and physics, 3rd edn, p 856
Singh A, Agrawal M (2007) Acid rain and its ecological consequences. J Environ Biol 29(1):15
Wang H, Han G (2011) Chemical composition of rainwater and anthropogenic influences in Chengdu, Southwest China. Atmos Res 99(2):190–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2010.10.004
Weather and Climate Data (2022) Meteo.gov.lk. Retrieved 17 August 2022, from http://meteo.gov.lk
Weerasundara L, Amarasekara R, Magana-Arachchi D, Ziyath A, Karunaratne D, Goonetilleke A, Vithanage M (2017) Microorganisms and heavy metals associated with atmospheric deposition in a congested urban environment of a developing country: Sri Lanka. Sci Total Environ 584–585:803–812. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.121
Weerasundara L, Magana-Arachchi D, Ziyath A, Goonetilleke A, Vithanage M (2018) Health risk assessment of heavy metals in atmospheric deposition in a congested city environment in a developing country: Kandy City, Sri Lanka. J Environ Manage 220:198–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.04.036
Weiner RF, Matthews RA (eds) (2003) Chapter 18 - Meteorology and air pollution. In: Environmental Engineering, 4th edn, pp. 351–374). essay, Butterworth-Heinemann. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-075067294-8/50018-X
Wesely M (2000) A review of the current status of knowledge on dry deposition. Atmos Environ 34(12–14):2261–2282. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1352-2310(99)00467-7
Zhang DD (2002) Alkaline rains on the Tibetan Plateau and their implication for the original ph of natural rainfall. J Geophys Res 107(D14). https://doi.org/10.1029/2001jd001332
Zong-Jie L, Ling-Ling S, Qing T, Yong-ge L (2017) Characteristics and sources of atmospheric composition based on precipitation chemistry in the Shiyang River Basin, Northwestern China. Arab J Geosci 10(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-016-2820-0
Acknowledgements
The authors declare that this work was supported by Department of Environmental and Industrial Sciences and Department of Chemistry of University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, for the chemical analysis and by providing the necessary laboratory facilities with chemicals and instruments.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the conception and designing of the study in different aspects. Initial planning of the study, supervision and guidance, data interpretation, compiling of the discussion and conclusion, and final corrections were performed by N. Priyantha. Sample collection, determination of rainwater quality parameters, their interpretation and analysis, and compiling of the initial draft of the manuscript were performed by B.D.P. Dharaka. All authors have read, commented, and approved the final manuscript of the study.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
Not applicable—This research did not involve any human or animal subjects or biological material or their data.
Consent to participate
Not applicable—This research did not involve any human subjects.
Consent for publication
Not applicable—This research did not involve any human subjects.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Dharaka, B.D.P., Priyantha, N. Atmospheric quality through analysis of dry and wet deposition at selected locations in Kandy and Gampaha districts of Sri Lanka. Air Qual Atmos Health 17, 71–87 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-023-01431-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-023-01431-z