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Advances in Flexible, Foldable, and Stretchable Quantum Dot Light-Emitting Diodes: Materials and Fabrication Strategies

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Abstract

Deformable light-emitting devices, capable of maintaining consistent light emission even under mechanical deformations, represent a cornerstone for next-generation human-centric electronics. Quantum dot light-emitting diodes (QLEDs), leveraging the electroluminescence (EL) of colloidal quantum dots (QDs), show exceptional promise in this domain. Their superior advantages, such as excellent color purity, high luminous efficiency, slim form factor, and facile fabrication on various soft substrates, position them as prime candidates for deformable EL devices. This review explores recent advancements in deformable QLEDs, with a particular focus on material engineering and fabrication strategies. We begin by introducing various types of QDs and the operational principles of QLEDs, along with summarizing performance enhancements in reported deformable devices. Next, we categorize device structures based on the direction of light emission. We then discuss representative methods for patterning QD thin films on flexible substrates to fabricate full-color QLEDs. Additionally, we highlight fabrication strategies for deformable QLEDs with unconventional form factors, including flexible, foldable, fiber-type, and stretchable devices, and their potential applications. We conclude this review with a brief outlook on the future of this technology.

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Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Reproduced with permission from Ref. [156], Copyright 2023, Korea Flexible & Printed Electronics Society

Fig. 3

Reproduced with permission from Ref. [45], Copyright 2009, American Chemical Society. c Schematic illustration of a core/shell structure for InP QDs. d Schematic illustration of InP QDs with different particle sizes and emission wavelengths. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [157], Copyright 2020, American Chemical Society. e Schematic illustration of a perovskite QD and its crystalline structure. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [49], Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [31], Copyright 2023, Wiley–VCH GmbH (inset). f PL spectra of MAPbX3 perovskite QDs with different bandgaps. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [50], Copyright 2015, American Chemical Society. g PL spectra of CsPbX3 perovskite QDs with different bandgaps. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [51], Copyright 2015, American Chemical Society. h Schematic illustration of device structure (left) and energy band diagram (right) of QLEDs with normal structure. i Schematic illustration of device structure (left) and energy band diagram (right) of QLEDs with inverted structure. j Annual improvements in the EQE of the reported deformable QLEDs

Fig. 4

Reproduced with permission from Ref. [70], Copyright 2022, American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). c Schematic illustration for exploded view of flexible QLED with graphene bottom electrode. Inset image shows the device operation. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [81], Copyright 2015, Wiley–VCH GmbH. d Schematic illustration (left) and cross-sectional TEM image (right) for exploded view of flexible QLED with silver nanowire/MXene bottom electrode. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [78], Copyright 2022, American Chemical Society. e Schematic illustration of the device structure of top-emitting QLEDs. f Microcavity effect in top-emitting QLEDs, including wide-angle interference (left) and multi-beam interference (right). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [68], Copyright 2016, American Chemical Society. g Schematic illustration of top-emitting flexible QLED, with semi-transparent top electrode. Inset shows the image of large-area flexible QLED arrays. h Enhanced EQE of top-emitting QLEDs due to the microcavity effect. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [65], Copyright 2022, American Chemical Society. i Schematic illustration of the device structure of fully-transparent QLEDs. j Schematic illustration for exploded view of flexible and transparent QLEDs. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [40], Copyright 2018, Wiley–VCH GmbH. k Comparison between the transparency of devices with QD patterns (top) or without QD patterns (bottom). l Images of the fully transparent QLED. The left inset shows the patterned QD pixels, while the right inset is a schematic image of the cross-sectional structure of the device that designed to prevent direct contact between the HTL and ETL. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [85], Copyright 2023, Wiley–VCH GmbH

Fig. 5

Reproduced with permission from Ref. [36], Copyright 2011, Springer Nature. c Schematic illustration of the intaglio transfer printing process of perovskite QDs using TPBi organic layer. d PL images of the transfer printed RGB patterns of perovskite QDs, depicting “Girl with a Pearl Earring”. Left and right PL images show magnified views of specific regions. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [70], Copyright 2022, American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). e Schematic illustration of the inkjet printing process. f Schematic illustration of the pixel drying process (left) and atomic force microscope (AFM) image of uniformly printed QD pixel. g, h PL images of printed QD pixels. QD ink containing pure CHB solvent exhibits coffee-ring effect (g), while inks containing CHB with 5% octane result in uniform pixel (h). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [94], Copyright 2020, Wiley–VCH GmbH. i Schematic illustration of the E-jet printing process. j Fluorescence image of the patterned lines at different printing speed (left images). PL image of the multi-color (R/G) QD pixels with 500 ppi (right). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [98], Copyright 2023, Royal Society of Chemistry. k Schematic illustration of the QD patterning via PR-based lithography and ALD process. l PL image of RGB QD patterns with 800 ppi (left), and various images and letters obtained by sequential photolithography process (right). All scale bars indicate 100 µm. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [101], Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society. m Schematic illustration of a ligand-assisted direct photolithography. n PL image of the RGB QD patterns with a delicate pixel design. o Schematic illustration (top) and image (bottom) of the full-colour QLED with RGB QD pixels, patterned via direct lithography. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [104], Copyright 2022, Springer Nature

Fig. 6

Reproduced with permission from Ref. [38], Copyright 2015, Macmillan Publishers. e Schematic illustration showing the pre-programming of foldable QLEDs using selective laser etching. f Cross-sectional schematic illustration of the device structure. g Image showing sharp folding of foldable QLED with an etching depth of 10 μm. Inset shows magnified side view image of the folded device (bending radius, 0.047 mm). h Image of three-dimensional star-like PM QLED array. The left inset shows the pattern of the QLED array. The right inset shows the structural illustration of the device. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [11], Copyright 2021, Springer Nature. i Schematic illustration of F-QLED. Six functional layers are sequentially deposited on a PET fiber substrate. j Schematic illustration of textile electronic system. k Images of F-QLEDs woven in the textile for red (left), green (middle), and blue (right) emission. Scale bars, 1 cm. l Luminance (top) and electroluminescence (bottom) characteristics of red, green, and blue F-QLEDs. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [41], Copyright 2023, American Association for the Advancement of Science

Fig. 7

Reproduced with permission from Ref. [122], Copyright 2021, Elsevier B.V. d Schematic illustration of epidermal photonic actuators based on intrinsically stretchable QLEDs. e Schematic illustration for exploded view of the QLED devices. f Image of the 5 × 5 epidermal photonic actuator on the PDMS substrate. g Image of the crumpled device. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [123], Copyright 2021, Wiley–VCH GmbH. h Schematic illustration of the device structure and fabrication process of stretchable QLEDs with wavy configuration. i SEM image of a wavy LED formed by 70% pre-strain. j Images of the stretchable red, green, and blue QLEDs stretched up to 70%. k Brightness and luminous efficiency characteristics of the stretchable red QLEDs under strains up to 70%. The inset shows images of the wavy QLEDs stretched up to 70%. l Image of the epidermal QLEDs attached on a wrist at a driving voltage of 9 V. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [125], Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society

Fig. 8

Reproduced with permission from Ref. [42], Copyright 2024, Springer Nature

Fig. 9

Reproduced with permission from Ref. [132], Copyright 2022, American Chemical Society. c Schematic exploded illustration for device structure of an ultraflexible, transparent and pressure-sensitive photonic skin. The left inset shows SEM images of transparent electrode, while the right inset shows cross-sectional illustration of device under pressure. d Image of the photonic skin visualizing the pressure distribution in real-time. The top image shows the pressure imaging with the device laminated to the back of a hand. The middle image shows a device with a green QLED touched by a finger. The bottom image shows a pressure imaging using PDMS replica of a mint leaf. Scale bars, 5 mm. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [133], Copyright 2020, Springer Nature. e Image of the ultrathin QLED integrated with wearable electronics (top), and schematic illustration of the data flow between the integrated electronic components and QLED display (bottom). f Images of the skin-mounted QLED display visualizing the measured temperature and step count data in scroll mode. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [39], Copyright 2017, WILEY–VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. g Schematic illustration of deformable QLEDs as light sources for wearable healthcare. h Schematic illustrations depicting the applications of deformable QLEDs in biosensing and therapeutic methods. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [26], Copyright 2024, Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering. i Images of the PPG signal measurement setup using FQPO for the left index finger and commercial pulse oximetry device for the right index finger. j SpO2 monitoring with alternating current (AC) driving of the FQPO. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [137], Copyright 2023, Springer Nature. k Schematic illustration of ultrathin Cu-In-Se QD-PDs. l PPG signals measured by commercial rigid PD (top) and wearable PPG sensor with flexible CISe QD-PDs (bottom). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [138], Copyright 2023, American Chemical Society

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Gachon University research fund of 2024 (GCU-202400940001). This research was further supported by Institute for Basic Science (IBS-R006-A1).

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  1. Taewoo Park, Ji Su Kim, and Daewon Ko contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Gachon University, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, 13120, Republic of Korea

    Taewoo Park, Daewon Ko & Dong Chan Kim

  2. Center for Nanoparticle Research, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea

    Ji Su Kim & Dae-Hyeong Kim

  3. School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Institute of Chemical Processes, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea

    Ji Su Kim & Dae-Hyeong Kim

  4. Department of Systems Biotechnology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, 17546, Republic of Korea

    Gi Doo Cha

  5. Department of Semiconductor Engineering, Gachon University, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, 13120, Republic of Korea

    Dong Chan Kim

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Park, T., Kim, J.S., Ko, D. et al. Advances in Flexible, Foldable, and Stretchable Quantum Dot Light-Emitting Diodes: Materials and Fabrication Strategies. Korean J. Chem. Eng. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11814-024-00236-9

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