Abstract
Aeromonas hydrophila, a natural inhabitant of aquatic environments is known to become pathogenic in fish under favourable conditions. It has also been reported to cause infections in humans and animals. The prevalence, virulence-associated genes, and antimicrobial resistance of 57 A. hydrophila isolates from freshwater fish farms in Andhra Pradesh, India, were studied. The isolates showed resistance to trimethoprim (35.9%), co-trimoxazole (21.1%), oxytetracycline (19.3%), doxycycline (17.5%), and enrofloxacin (8.93%), but were completely sensitive to ciprofloxacin. The majority of the A. hydrophila isolates were strong (33%), moderate (50%), and weak (17%) biofilm formers, playing roles in virulence and colonization in hosts. The virulence gene distribution in representative A. hydrophila isolates was very high for enolase (enol, 96.4%), followed by flagellin (fla, 94.7%), cytotonic enterotoxins (alt, 91.2%), cytotoxic enterotoxins (act, 84.2%), lipase (lip, 77.1%), serine protease (ahp, 54.3%), aerolysin (aerA, 50.8%), and elastase (ahyB, 43.8%), respectively. 80% of the isolates carried a maximum of four virulence genes, whereas none carried the DNAase (exu) or haemolysin (hly) genes. Hemolytic assays on blood agar demonstrated that 70% of the isolates were β-haemolytic. The findings of the study will help to create awareness among aquaculturists of the potential risk of the spread of isolates and the virulence-associated genes across other sectors and the need to adopt best management practices in aquaculture.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The authors declare that there are no objections to the data availability and materials.
Abbreviations
- AMR:
-
Antimicrobial resistance
- MAS:
-
Motile aeromonas septicemia
- IMC:
-
Indian major carps
- AST:
-
Antimicrobial susceptibility testing
- CLSI:
-
Clinical and laboratory standard institute
- PCR:
-
Polymerase chain reaction
- SBF:
-
Strong biofilm formers
- MBF:
-
Moderate biofilm formers
- WBF:
-
Weak biofilm formers
References
Aiyahya SA, Ameen F, Al-Niaeem KS, Al-Saadi BA, Hadi S, Mostafa AA (2018) Histopathological studies of experimental Aeromonas hydrophila infection in blue tilapia, Oreochromis aureus. Saudi J Biol Sci 25(1):182–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2017.10.019
Akinbowale OL, Peng H, Barton MD (2006) Antimicrobial resistance in bacteria isolated from aquaculture sources in Australia. J Appl Microbiol 100(5):1103–1113. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2006.02812.x
Austin B, Austin DA, Munn CB (2007) Bacterial fish pathogens: disease of farmed and wild fish, vol 26. Springer, Chichester, p 552
Awan F, Dong Y, Wang N, Liu J, Ma K, Liu Y (2018) The fight for invincibility: environmental stress response mechanisms and Aeromonas hydrophila. Microb Pathog 116:135–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2018.01.023
Bauer AW (1966) Antibiotic susceptibility testing by a standardized single disc method. Am J Clin Pathol 45:149–158
Buentello JA, Reyes-Becerril M, de Jesus Romero-Geraldo M, de Ascencio-Valle J (2007) Effects of dietary arginine on hematological parameters and innate immune function of channel catfish. J Aquat Anim Health 19(3):195–203. https://doi.org/10.1577/H07-004.1
Cahill MM (1990) Bacterial flora of fishes: a review. Microb Ecol 19(1):21–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02015051
Cai W, Arias CR (2017) Biofilm formation on aquaculture substrates by selected bacterial fish pathogens. J Aquat Anim Health 29(2):95–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/08997659.2017.1290711
Cai W, Willmon E, Burgos FA, Ray CL, Hanson T, Arias CR (2019) Biofilm and sediment are major reservoirs of virulent Aeromonas hydrophila (vAh) in catfish production ponds. J Aquat Anim Health 31(1):112–120. https://doi.org/10.1002/aah.10056
Chandrarathna HPSU, Nikapitiya C, Dananjaya SHS, Chandrarathna HPSU, Nikapitiya C, Dananjaya SHS, Wijerathne CUB, Wimalasena SHMP, Kwun HJ, Heo G-J, Lee J, De Zoysa M (2018) Outcome of co-infection with opportunistic and multidrug resistant Aeromonas hydrophila and A. veronii in zebrafish: identification, characterization, pathogenicity and immune responses. Fish Shellfish Immunol 80:573–581. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsi.2018.06.049
Chang YC, Shih DYC, Wang JY, Yang SS (2007) Molecular characterization of class 1 integrons and antimicrobial resistance in Aeromonas strains from foodborne outbreak-suspect samples and environmental sources in Taiwan. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 59(2):191–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2007.04.007
Chen J, Zhu N, Kong L, Bei Y, Zheng T, Ding X, He Z (2013) First case of soft shell disease in chinese soft-shelled turtle (Trionyx sinens) associated with Aeromonas sobria–A. veronii complex. Aquaculture 406:62–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2013.05.006
Chirapongsatonkul N, Srichanun M (2018) Virulence factor gene profiles of Aeromonas veronii isolated from diseased Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in Nakhon Si Thammarat province and its expression towards diurnal water temperature changes. Int J Agric 14(7):1115–1128
CLSI. Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. 32nd ed. CLSI guideline M100. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; 2022
Cui H, Hao S, Arous E (2007) A distinct cause of necrotizing fasciitis: Aeromonas veronii biovar sobria. Surg Infect 8(5):523–528. https://doi.org/10.1089/sur.2006.046
Dubey S, Ager-Wick E, Kumar J, Dubey S, Ager-Wick E, Kumar J, Karunasagar I, Karunasagar I, Peng Bo, Evensen Ø, Sørum H, Munang’andu HM (2022) Aeromonas species isolated from aquatic organisms, insects, chicken, and humans in India show similar antimicrobial resistance profiles. Front Microbiol 13:1008870. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.1008870
El-Bahar HM, Ali NG, Aboyadak IM, Khalil SAES, Ibrahim MS (2019) Virulence genes contributing to Aeromonas hydrophila pathogenicity in Oreochromis niloticus. Int Microbiol 22(4):479–490. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10123-019-00075-3
Elbahnaswy S, Elshopakey GE (2020) Differential gene expression and immune response of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) challenged intra-peritoneally with Photobacterium damselae and Aeromonas hydrophila demonstrating immunosuppression. Aquaculture 526:735364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.735364
Esteve C, Alcaide E, Blasco MD (2012) Aeromonas hydrophila subsp. dhakensis isolated from feces, water and fish in Mediterranean Spain. Microbes Environ 27(4):367–373. https://doi.org/10.1264/jsme2.ME12009
Falco A, Frost P, Miest J, Pionnier N, Irnazarow I, Hoole D (2012) Reduced inflammatory response to Aeromonas salmonicida infection in common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) fed with β-glucan supplements. Fish Shellfish Immunol 32(6):1051–1057. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsi.2012.02.028
Fernandez-Bravo A, Figueras MJ (2020) An update on the genus Aeromonas: taxonomy, epidemiology, and pathogenicity. Microorganisms 8(1):129. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8010129
Figueras MJ, Beaz-Hidalgo R (2015) Aeromonas infections in humans. In Aeromonas; Academic Press, Norfolk, UK, pp 65–108
Gao X, Tao Y, Lamas V, Gao X, Tao Y, Lamas V, Huang M, Yeh W-H, Pan B, Hu Y-J, Hu JH, Thompson DB, Shu Y, Li Y, Wang H, Yang S, Xu Q, Polley DB, Liberman MC, Kong W-J, Holt JR, Chen Z-Y, Liu DR (2018) Treatment of autosomal dominant hearing loss by in vivo delivery of genome editing agents. Nature 553(7687):217–221. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature25164
Hassan A, Usman J, Kaleem F, Omair M, Khalid A, Iqbal M (2011) Evaluation of different detection methods of biofilm formation in the clinical isolates. Braz J Infect Dis 15:305–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1413-8670(11)70197-0
Hayati HR, Hassan MD, Lee OB, Hidayahanum HN, Faten AMN, Raina MS, Peng TL, Fazlina NMFNN (2018) Detection of class 1 integron and antibiotic resistance genes in Aeromonas hydrophila isolated from freshwater fish. In Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the Future of ASEAN (ICoFA) 2017–Volume 2. Springer, Singapore, p 705–717. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8471-3_69
Heuer OE, Kruse H, Grave K, Collignon P, Karunasagar I, Angulo FJ (2009) Human health consequences of use of antimicrobial agents in aquaculture. Clin Infect Dis 49(8):1248–1253. https://doi.org/10.1086/605667
Hoai TD, Trang TT, Van Tuyen N, Giang NTH, Van K (2019) Aeromonas veronii caused disease and mortality in channel catfish in Vietnam. Aquaculture 513:734425
Holt JG, Krieg NR, Sneath PH, Staley JT, Williams ST (1994) Bergey’s Manual of determinative bacteriology. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore
Hu M, Wang N, Pan ZH, Lu CP, Liu YJ (2012) Identity and virulence properties of Aeromonas isolates from diseased fish, healthy controls and water environment in China. Lett Appl Microbiol 55(3):224–233. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-765X.2012.03281.x
Ibrahim IR, Abdullah SMA, Abdulkarim Yasin Karim AY (2020) Determination of the optimal conditions of cloning Aerolysin gene from the common carp pathogen Aeromonas hydrophila in Escherichia coli BL21. Iran J Fish Sci 19(5):2258–2273. https://doi.org/10.22092/ijfs.2020.122373
Jacobs L, Chenia HY (2007) Characterization of integrons and tetracycline resistance determinants in Aeromonas spp. isolated from south african aquaculture systems. Int J Food Microbiol 114(3):295–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2006.09.030
Janda JM, Abbott SL (2010) The genus Aeromonas: taxonomy, pathogenicity, and infection. Clin Microbiol Rev 23(1):35–73. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00039-09
Jiravanichpaisal P, Roos S, Edsman L, Liu H, Soderhall K (2009) A highly virulent pathogen, Aeromonas hydrophila, from the freshwater crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus. J Invertebr Pathol 101(1):56–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jip.2009.02.002
Katiha PK, Jena JK, Pillai NGK, Chakraborty C, Dey MM (2005) Inland aquaculture in India: past trend, present status and future prospects. Aquac Econ Manag 9(1–2):237–264. https://doi.org/10.1080/13657300590961573
Kingombe CIB, Huys G, Tonolla M, Albert MJ, Swings J, Peduzzi R, Jemmi T (1999) PCR detection, characterization, and distribution of virulence genes in Aeromonas spp. Appl Environ Microbiol 65(12):5293–5302
Kpoda DS, Ajayi A, Somda M, Kpoda DS, Ajayi A, Somda M, Traore O, Guessennd N, Ouattara AS, Sangare L, Traore AS, Dosso M (2018) Distribution of resistance genes encoding ESBLs in Enterobacteriaceae isolated from biological samples in health centers in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. BMC Res Notes 11(1):1–5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-018-3581-5
Kumar V, Das BK, Swain HS, Kumar V, Das BK, Swain HS, Chowdhury H, Roy S, Bera AK, Das R, Parida SN, Dhar S, Jana AK, Behera BK (2022) Outbreak of Ichthyophthirius multifiliis associated with Aeromonas hydrophila in Pangasianodon hypophthalmus: the role of turmeric oil in enhancing immunity and inducing resistance against co-infection. Front Immunol 13:956478. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.956478
Kummerer K (2001) Drugs in the environment: emission of drugs, diagnostic aids and disinfectants into wastewater by hospitals in relation to other sources–a review. Chemosphere 45(6–7):957–969. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0045-6535(01)00144-8
Li J, Ni XD, Liu YJ, Lu CP (2011) Detection of three virulence genes alt, ahp and aerA in Aeromonas hydrophila and their relationship with actual virulence to zebrafish. J Appl Microbiol 110(3):823–830. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2011.04944.x
Liu L, Gong YX, Liu GL, Zhu B, Wang GX (2016) Protective immunity of grass carp immunized with DNA vaccine against Aeromonas hydrophila by using carbon nanotubes as a carrier molecule. Fish Shellfish Immunol 55:516–522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsi.2016.06.026
Liu X, Steele JC, Meng XZ (2017) Usage, residue, and human health risk of antibiotics in chinese aquaculture: a review. Environ Pollut 223:161–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.01.003
Long M, Nielsen TK, Leisner JJ, Hansen LH, Shen ZX, Zhang QQ, Li A (2016) Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. salmonicida strains isolated from chinese freshwater fish contain a novel genomic island and possible regional-specific mobile genetic elements profiles. FEMS Microbiol Lett 363(17):190. https://doi.org/10.1093/femsle/fnw190
Lulijwa R, Rupia EJ, Alfaro AC (2020) Antibiotic use in aquaculture, policies and regulation, health and environmental risks: a review of the top 15 major producers. Rev Aquac 12(2):640–663. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12344
Lynch SV, Wiener-Kronish JP (2008) Novel strategies to combat bacterial virulence. Curr Opin Crit Care 14(5):593–599. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCC.0b013e32830f1dd5
Mansour A, Mahfouz NB, Husien MM, El-Magd MA (2019) Molecular identification of Aeromonas hydrophila strains recovered from Kafrelsheikh fish farms. Slov Vet Zb 56(22):201–208. https://doi.org/10.26873/SVR-758-2019
Martino ME, Fasolato L, Montemurro F, Rosteghin M, Manfrin A, Patarnello T, Cardazzo B, Martino ME, Fasolato L, Montemurro F, Rosteghin M, Manfrin A, Patarnello T, Novelli E, Cardazzo B (2011) Determination of microbial diversity of Aeromonas strains on the basis of multilocus sequence typing, phenotype, and presence of putative virulence genes. Appl Environ Microbiol 77(14):4986–5000. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.00708-11
Mathur T, Singhal S, Khan S, Upadhyay DJ, Fatma T, Rattan A (2006) Detection of biofilm formation among the clinical isolates of staphylococci: an evaluation of three different screening methods. Ind J Med Microbiol 24(1):25–29. https://doi.org/10.4103/0255-0857.19890
Messi P, Guerrieri E, Bondi M (2003) Bacteriocin-like substance (BLS) production in Aeromonas hydrophila water isolates. FEMS Microbiol Lett 220(1):121–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1097(03)00092-2
Mishra SS, Rakesh D, Dhiman M, Choudhary P, Debbarma J, Sahoo SN, Mishra CK (2017) Present status of fish disease management in freshwater aquaculture in India: state-of-the-art-review. J Aquac Fish 1(003):14. https://doi.org/10.24966/AAF-5523/100003
Mishra SS, Das R, Das BK, Choudhary P, Rathod R, Giri BS, Swain P (2017b) Status of Aqua-medicines, drugs and chemicals use in India: a Survey Re-port. J Aquac Fisheries 1(004). https://doi.org/10.24966/AAF-5523/100004
Mitra S, Khan MA, Nielsen R (2019) Credit constraints and aquaculture productivity. Aquac Econ Manag 23(4):410–427. https://doi.org/10.1080/13657305.2019.1641571
Muduli C, Tripathi G, Paniprasad K, Kumar K, Singh RK, Rathore G (2021) Virulence potential of Aeromonas hydrophila isolated from apparently healthy freshwater food fish. Biologia 76:1005–1015. https://doi.org/10.2478/s11756-020-00639-z
Mzula A, Wambura PN, Mdegela RH, Shirima GM (2020) Virulence pattern of circulating aeromonads isolated from farmed Nile tilapia in Tanzania and novel antibiotic free attenuation of Aeromonas hydrophila strain TZR7-2018. Aquac Rep 17:100–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2020.100300
Nawaz M, Khan SA, Khan AA, Sung K, Tran Q, Kerdahi K, Steele R (2010) Detection and characterization of virulence genes and integrons in Aeromonas veronii isolated from catfish. Food Microbiol 27(3):327–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2009.11.007
Nhinh DT, Le DV, Van KV, Huong Giang NT, Dang LT, Hoai TD (2021) Prevalence, virulence gene distribution and alarming the multidrug resistance of Aeromonas hydrophila associated with disease outbreaks in freshwater aquaculture. Antibiotics 10(5):532. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics10050532
Oliveira ST, Veneroni-Gouveia G, Costa MM (2012) Molecular characterization of virulence factors in Aeromonas hydrophila obtained from fish. Pesqui Vet Bras 32:701–706. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics10050532
Palu AP, Gomes LM, Miguel MAL, Balassiano IT, Queiroz MLP, Freitas-Almeida AC, de Oliveira SS (2006) Antimicrobial resistance in food and clinical Aeromonas isolates. Food Microbiol 23(5):504–509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2005.07.002
Rahim Z, Khan SI, Chopra AK (2004) Biological characterization of Aeromonas spp. isolated from the environment. Epidemiol Infect 132(4):627–636
Rasmussen-Ivey CR, Hossain MJ, Odom SE, Rasmussen-Ivey CR, Hossain MJ, Odom SE, Terhune JS, Hemstreet WG, Shoemaker CA, Zhang D, Xu D-H, Griffin MJ, Liu Y-J, Figueras MJ, Santos SR, Newton JC, Liles MR (2016) Classification of a hypervirulent Aeromonas hydrophila pathotype responsible for epidemic outbreaks in warm-water fishes. Front Microbiol 7:1615. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.01615
Roges EM, Gonçalves VD, Cardoso MD et al (2020) Virulence-associated genes and antimicrobial resistance of Aeromonas hydrophila isolates from animal, food, and human sources in Brazil. BioMed Res Int 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/1052607
Sawyer RG, Claridge JA, Nathens AB et al (2015) Trial of short-course antimicrobial therapy for intra-abdominal infection. N En J Med 372(21):1996–2005. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1411162
Schar D, Klein EY, Laxminarayan R, Gilbert M, Van Boeckel TP (2020) Global trends in antimicrobial use in aquaculture. Sci Rep 10(1):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-78849-3
Schar D, Zhao C, Wang Y, Larsson DG, Gilbert M, Van Boeckel TP (2021) Twenty-year trends in antimicrobial resistance from aquaculture and fisheries in Asia. Nat Commun 12(1):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-25655-8
Sha J, Kozlova EV, Chopra AK (2002) Role of various enterotoxins in Aeromonas hydrophila-induced gastroenteritis: generation of enterotoxin gene-deficient mutants and evaluation of their enterotoxic activity. Infect Immun 70(4):1924–1935. https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.70.4.1924-1935.2002
Singh DV, Sanyal SC (1992) Production of haemolysis and its correlation with enterotoxicity in Aeromonas spp. J Med Microbiol 37(4):262–267. https://doi.org/10.1099/00222615-37-4-262
Sorum H, LAbee-Lund TM, Solberg A, Wold A (2003) Integron-containing IncU R plasmids pRAS1 and pAr-3s2 from the fish pathogen Aeromonas salmonicida. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47(4):1285–1290. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.47.4.1285-1290.2003
Sreedharan K, Philip R, Singh ISB (2012) Virulence potential and antibiotic susceptibility pattern of motile aeromonads associated with freshwater ornamental fish culture systems: a possible threat to public health. Braz J Microbiol 43:754–765. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1517-83822012000200040
Stratev D, Stoev S, Vashin I, Daskalov H (2015) Some varieties of pathological changes in experimental infection of carps (Cyprinus carpio) with Aeromonas hydrophila. J Aquac Eng Fish Res 1(4):191–202. https://doi.org/10.3153/JAEFR15019
Tavares-Dias M, Martins ML (2017) An overall estimation of losses caused by diseases in the brazilian fish farms. J Parasit Dis 41(4):913–918. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12639-017-0938-y
Thomas J, Jerobin J, Seelan TSJ, Thanigaivel S, Vijayakumar S, Mukherjee A, Chandrasekaran N (2013) Studies on pathogenicity of Aeromonas salmonicida in catfish Clarias batrachus and control measures by neem nano-emulsion. Aquaculture 396:71–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2013.02.024
Van Boeckel TP, Brower C, Gilbert M, Van Boeckel TP, Brower C, Gilbert M, Grenfell BT, Levin SA, Robinson TP, Teillant A, Laxminarayan R (2015) Global trends in antimicrobial use in food animals. Proc Natl Acad Sci 112(18):5649–5654. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1503141112
Van Boeckel TP, Glennon EE, Chen D, Van Boeckel TP, Glennon EE, Chen D, Gilbert M, Robinson TP, Grenfell BT, Levin SA, Bonhoeffer S, Laxminarayan R (2017) Reducing antimicrobial use in food animals. Science 357(6358):1350–1352. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aao1495
Wang G, Sun Q, Wang H, Liu H (2021) Identification and characterization of circRNAs in the liver of blunt snout bream (Megalobrama amblycephala) infected with Aeromonas hydrophila. Dev Comp Immunol 124:104185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dci.2021.104185
Weisburg WG, Barns SM, Pelletier DA, Lane DJ (1991) 16S ribosomal DNA amplification for phylogenetic study. J Bacteriol 173(2):697–703. https://doi.org/10.1128/jb.173.2.697-703.1991
Yao Z, Sun L, Wang Y, Yao Z, Sun L, Wang Y, Lin L, Guo Z, Li D, Lin W, Lin X (2018) Quantitative proteomics reveals antibiotics resistance function of outer membrane proteins in Aeromonas hydrophila. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 8:390. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2018.00390
Yuan J, Ni M, Liu M, Zheng Y, Gu Z (2019) Occurrence of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes in a typical estuary aquaculture region of Hangzhou Bay, China. Mar Pollut Bull 138:376–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.11.037
Zhang DX, Kang YH, Song MF et al (2019) Identity and virulence properties of aeromonas isolates from healthy northern snakehead (Channa argus) in China. Lett Appl Microbiol 69(2):100–109. https://doi.org/10.1111/lam.13172
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the authorities of Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies in Kochi, Kerala, India, for providing all necessary facilities and support for this research.
Funding
Not applicable.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Kummari Suresh is responsible for data and sample collection, planning and designing the study, analysis, result interpretation, and the drafting of the original manuscript. Devika Pillai was responsible for the planning of the study, the analysis and interpretation of results, and the critical evaluation and editing of the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical approval
The present was approved by the Department of Aquatic Animal Health Management, Faculty of Fisheries Science, Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies, Kochi, India. All methods were carried out in accordance with the applicable guidelines of the Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision of Experiments on Animals (CPCSEA), registration number: 1174/ac/08/CPCSEA.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Suresh, K., Pillai, D. Prevalence and characterization of virulence-associated genes and antimicrobial resistance in Aeromonas hydrophila from freshwater finfish farms in Andhra Pradesh, India. Biologia 78, 2931–2939 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11756-023-01454-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11756-023-01454-y