Skip to main content

N-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids: Relationship to Inflammation in Healthy Adults and Adults Exhibiting Features of Metabolic Syndrome

Lipids volume 48, pages 319–332 (2013)Cite this article

Abstract

Individuals with metabolic syndrome (MetS) have a higher risk of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease, therefore, research has been directed at reducing various components that contribute to MetS and associated metabolic impairments, including chronic low-grade inflammation. Epidemiological, human, animal and cell culture studies provide evidence that dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA), including alpha-linolenic acid (18:3n-3, ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3, EPA) and/or docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3, DHA) may improve some of the components associated with MetS. The current review will discuss recent evidence from human observational and intervention studies that focused on the effects of ALA, EPA or DHA on inflammatory markers in healthy adults and those with one or more features of MetS. Observational studies in healthy adults support the recommendation that a diet rich in n-3 fatty acids may play a role in preventing and reducing inflammation, whereas intervention studies in healthy adults have yielded inconsistent results. The majority of intervention studies in adults with features of MetS have reported a benefit for some inflammatory measures; however, other studies using high n-3 fatty acid doses and long supplementation periods have reported no effect. Overall, the data reviewed herein support recommendations for regular fatty fish consumption and point toward health benefits in terms of lowering inflammation in adults with one or more features of MetS.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price includes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Abbreviations

ALA:

Alpha-linolenic acid

CRP:

C-reactive protein

CVD:

Cardiovascular disease

CLA:

Conjugated linoleic acid

DHA:

Docosahexaenoic acid

EPA:

Eicosapentaenoic acid

IL:

Interleukin

MetS:

Metabolic syndrome

MCP-1:

Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1

PL:

Phospholipid

PUFA:

Polyunsaturated fatty acids

RBCs:

Red blood cells

TNF-α:

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha

T2D:

Type 2 diabetes

References

  1. Alberti KG, Eckel RH, Grundy SM, Zimmet PZ, Cleeman JI, Donato KA, Fruchart JC, James WP, Loria CM, Smith SC Jr, International Diabetes Federation Task Force on Epidemiology and Prevention, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, American Heart Association, World Heart Federation, International Atherosclerosis Society, International Association for the Study of Obesity (2009) Harmonizing the metabolic syndrome: a joint interim statement of the international diabetes federation task force on epidemiology and prevention. Circulation 120:1640–1645

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Riediger ND, Clara I (2011) Prevalence of metabolic syndrome in the Canadian adult population. CMAJ 183:E1127–E1134

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Calder PC (2011) Fatty acids and inflammation: the cutting edge between food and pharma. Eur J Pharmacol 668(suppl):550–558

    Google Scholar 

  4. Siriwardhana N, Kalupahana NS, Moustaid-Moussa N (2012) Health benefits of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. Adv Food Nutr Res 65:211–222

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Mozaffarian D, Wu JH (2011) Omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: effects on risk factors, molecular pathways, and clinical events. J Am Coll Cardiol 58:2047–2067

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Poudyal H, Panchal SK, Diwan V, Brown L (2011) Omega-3 fatty acids and metabolic syndrome: effects and emerging mechanisms of action. Prog Lipid Res 50:372–387

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Akinkuolie AO, Ngwa JS, Meigs JB, Djoussé L (2011) Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid and insulin sensitivity: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clin Nutr 30:702–707

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Cabo J, Alonso R, Mata P (2012) Omega-3 fatty acids and blood pressure. Br J Nutr 107(Suppl 2):S195–S200

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Jacobson TA, Glickstein SB, Rowe JD, Soni PN (2011) Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid on low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and other lipids: a review. J Clin Lipidol 6:5–18

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Robinson LE, Buchholz AC, Mazurak VC (2007) Inflammation, obesity, and fatty acid metabolism: influence of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on factors contributing to metabolic syndrome. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 32:1008–1024

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Lau DCW, Dhillon G, Yan H, Szmitko PE, Verma S (2005) Adipokines: molecular links between obesity and atherosclerosis. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 288:H2031–H2041

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Romeo GR, Lee J, Shoelson SE (2012) Metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, and roles of inflammation—mechanisms and therapeutic targets. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 32(8):1771–1776

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Kalupahana NS, Moustaid-Moussa N, Claycombe KJ (2012) Immunity as a link between obesity and insulin resistance. Mol Aspects Med 33:26–34

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Kalupahana NS, Claycombe KJ, Moustaid-Moussa N (2011) (n-3) Fatty acids alleviate adipose tissue inflammation and insulin resistance: mechanistic insights. Adv Nutr 2:304–316

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Bastard JP, Jardel C, Bruckert E, Blondy P, Capeau J, Laville M, Vidal H, Hainque B (2000) Elevated levels of interleukin 6 are reduced in serum and subcutaneous adipose tissue of obese women after weight loss. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:3338–3342

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Esposito K, Pontillo A, Di Palo C, Giugliano G, Masella M, Marfella R, Giugliano D (2003) Effect of weight loss and lifestyle changes on vascular inflammatory markers in obese women: a randomized trial. J Am Med Assoc 289:1799–1804

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Monzillo LU, Hamdy O, Horton ES, Ledbury S, Mullooly C, Jarema C, Porter S, Ovalle K, Moussa A, Mantzoros C (2003) Effect of lifestyle modification on adipokine levels in obese subjects with insulin resistance. Obes Res 11:1048–1054

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Dekker MJ, Lee S, Hudson R, Kilpatrick K, Graham TE, Ross R, Robinson LE (2007) An exercise intervention without weight loss decreases circulating interleukin-6 in lean and obese men with and without type 2 diabetes mellitus. Metabolism 56:332–338

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Puglisi MJ, Hasty AH, Saraswathi V (2011) The role of adipose tissue in mediating the beneficial effects of dietary fish oil. J Nutr Biochem 22:101–108

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. James MJ, Gibson RA, Cleland LG (2000) Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory mediator production. Am J Clin Nutr 71(1 Suppl):343S–348S

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Calder PC (2006) n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation, and inflammatory diseases. Am J Clin Nutr 83(6 Suppl):1505S–1519S

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Calder PC (2006) Polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammation. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 75:197–202

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Grimble RF (1998) Dietary lipids and the inflammatory response. Proc Nutr Soc 57:535–542

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Simopoulos AP (2003) Essential fatty acids in health and chronic diseases. Forum Nutr 56:67–70

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Plourde M, Cunnane SC (2007) Extremely limited synthesis of long chain polyunsaturates in adults: implications for their dietary essentiality and use as supplements. APNM 32:619–634

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Barceló-Coblijn G, Murphy EJ (2009) Alpha-linolenic acid and its conversion to longer chain n-3 fatty acids: benefits for human health and a role in maintaining tissue n-3 fatty acid levels. Prog Lipid Res 48:355–374

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Lichtenstein AH, Appel LJ, Brands M, Carnethon M, Daniels S, Franch HA, Franklin B, Kris-Etherton P, Harris WS, Howard B, Karanja N, Lefevre M, Rudel L, Sacks F, Van Horn L, Winston M, Wylie-Rosett J (2006) Summary of American heart association diet and lifestyle recommendations revision 2006. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 26:2186–2191

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Macronutrients (2005) Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and amino acids (macronutrients). The National Academies Press, USA

  29. Hu J, La Vecchia C, DesMeules M, Negri E, Mery L, Canadian Cancer Registries Epidemiol (2008) Meat and fish consumption and cancer in Canada. Nutr Cancer 60:313–324

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Fratesi JA, Hogg RC, Young-Newton GS, Patterson AC, Charkhzarin P, Thomas KB et al (2009) Direct quantitation of omega-3 fatty acid intake of Canadian residents of a long-term care facility. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 34:1–9

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Lucas M, Asselin G, Plourde M, Cunnane SC, Dewailly E, Dodin S (2010) n-3 fatty acid intake from marine food products among Quebecers: comparison to worldwide recommendations. Public Health Nutr 13:63–70

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Perusse-Lachance E, Tremblay A, Drapeau V (2010) Lifestyle factors and other health measures in a Canadian university community. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 35:498–506

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Simopoulos AP (2010) Genetic variants in the metabolism of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids: their role in the determination of nutritional requirements and chronic disease risk. Exp Biol Med 235:785–795

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Wang C, Chung M, Lichtenstein A, Balk E, Kupelnick B, DeVine D et al (2004) Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on cardiovascular disease. Evid Rep Technol Assess 94:1–8

    Google Scholar 

  35. Witte TR, Salazar AJ, Ballester OF, Hardman WE (2010) RBC and WBC fatty acid composition following consumption of an omega 3 supplement: lessons for future clinical trials. Lipids Health Dis 9:31–36

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Motoyama KR, Curb JD, Kadowaki T, El-Saed A, Abbott RD, Okamura T et al (2009) Association of serum n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids with lipids in 3 populations of middle-aged men. Am J Clin Nutr 90:49–55

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Sekikawa A, Kadowaki T, Curb JD, Evans RW, Maegawa H, Abbott RD et al (2010) Circulating levels of 8 cytokines and marine n-3 fatty acids and indices of obesity in Japanese, white, and Japanese American middle-aged men. J Interferon Cytokine Res 30:541–548

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Poudel-Tandukar K, Nanri A, Matsushita Y, Sasaki S, Otha M, Sato M, Mizoue T (2009) Dietary intakes of alpha-linoleic acids are inversely associated with serum C-reactive protein levels among Japanese men. Nutr Res 29:363–370

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Yusof HM, Miles EA, Calder P (2008) Influence of very long-chain n-3 fatty acids on plasma markers of inflammation in middle-aged men. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 78:219–228

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Kalogeropoulos N, Pangiotakos DB, Pitsavos C, Chrysohoou C, Rousinou G, Toutouza M, Stefanadis C (2010) Unsaturated fatty acids are inversely associated and n-6/n-3 ratios are positively related to inflammation and coagulation markers in plasma of apparently healthy adults. Clin Chim Acta 411:584–591

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. He K, Liu ML, Daviglus NS, Jenny E, Mayer-Davis R, Jiang L, Steffen D, Siscovick M, Tsai M, Herrington D (2009) Associations of dietary long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and fish with biomarkers of inflammation and endothelial activation (from the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA)). Am J Cardiol 103:1238–1243

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Micallef MA, Munro IA, Garg ML (2009) An inverse relationship between plasma n-3 fatty acids and C-reactive protein in healthy individuals. Eur J Clin Nutr 63:1154–1156

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Tsitouras PD, Gucciardo F, Salbe AD, Heward C, Harman SM (2008) High omega-3 fat intake improves insulin sensitivity and reduces CRP and IL-6, but does not affect other endocrine axes in healthy older adults. Horm Metab Res 40:199–205

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Hallund J, Madsen BO, Bugel SH, Jacobsen C, Jakobsen J, Krarup H, Holm J, Nielsen HH, Lauritzen L (2010) The effect of farmed trout on cardiovascular risk markers in healthy men. Br J Nutr 104:1528–1536

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Guebre-Egziabher F, Rabasa-Lhoret R, Bonnet F, Bastard JP, Desage M, Skilton MR, Vidal H, Laville M (2008) Nutritional intervention to reduce the n-6/n-3 fatty acid ratio increases adiponectin concentration and fatty acid oxidation in healthy subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr 62:1287–1293

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Cazzola R, Russo-Volpe S, Miles EA, Rees D, Banerjee T, Roynette CE, Wells SJ, Goua M, Wahle KW, Cestaro B, Calder PC (2007) Age- and dose-dependent effects of an eicosapentaenoic acid-rich oil on cardiovascular risk factors in healthy male subjects. Atherosclerosis 193:159–167

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Pot GK, Brouwer IA, Enneman A, Rijkers GT, Kampman E, Geelen A (2009) No effect of fish oil supplementation on serum inflammatory markers and their interrelationships: a randomized controlled trial in healthy, middle-aged individuals. Eur J Clin Nutr 63:1353–1359

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Weaver KL, Ivester P, Seeds M, Case LD, Arm JP, Chilton FH (2009) Effect of dietary fatty acids on inflammatory gene expression in healthy humans. J Biol Chem 284:15400–15407

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Shin MJ, Shim E, Kang B, Park S, Lee SH, Shim CY, Park E, Chung N (2009) Increased inflammation, reduced plasma phospholipid eicosapentaenoic acid and reduced antioxidant potential of treated hypertensive patients with metabolic syndrome. Yonsei Med J 50:757–763

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Faintuch J, Horie LM, Barbeiro HV, Soriano FG, Ishida RK, Cecconello I (2007) Systemic inflammation in morbidly obese subjects: response to oral supplementation with alpha-linolenic acid. Obes Surg 17:341–347

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Bloedon LT, Balikai S, Chittams J, Cunnane SC, Berlin JA, Rader DJ, Szapary PO (2008) Flaxseed and cardiovascular risk factors: results from a double blind, randomized, controlled clinical trial. J Am Coll Nutr 27:65–74

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Dewell A, Marvasti FF, Harris WS, Tsao P, Gardner CD (2011) Low- and high-dose plant and marine (n-3) fatty acids do not affect plasma inflammatory markers in adults with metabolic syndrome. J Nutr 141:2166–2171

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Murphy KJ, Meyer BJ, Mori TA, Burke V, Mansour J, Patch CS, Tapsell LC, Noakes M, Clifton PA, Barden A, Puddey IB, Beilin LJ, Howe PR (2007) Impact of foods enriched with n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on erythrocyte n-3 levels and cardiovascular risk factors. Br J Nutr 97:749–757

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Ramel A, Martinez JA, Kiely M, Bandarra NM, Thorsdottir I (2010) Effects of weight loss and seafood consumption on inflammation parameters in young, overweight and obese European men and women during 8 weeks of energy restriction. Eur J Clin Nutr 64:987–993

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Zhang J, Wang C, Li L, Man Q, Song P, Meng L, Du ZY, Froyland L (2010) Inclusion of Atlantic salmon in the Chinese diet reduces cardiovascular disease risk markers in dyslipidemic adult men. Nutr Res 30:447–454

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  56. de Mello VD, Schwab U, Kolehmainen M, Koenig W, Siloaho M, Poutanen K, Mykkänen H, Uusitupa M (2011) A diet high in fatty fish, bilberries and wholegrain products improves markers of endothelial function and inflammation in individuals with impaired glucose metabolism in a randomised controlled trial: the Sysdimet study. Diabetologia 54:2755–2767

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Browning LM, Krebs JD, Moore CS, Mishra GD, O’Connell MA, Jebb SA (2007) The impact of long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on inflammation, insulin sensitivity and CVD risk in a group of overweight women with an inflammatory phenotype. Diabetes Obes Metab 9:70–80

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Sneddon AA, Tsofliou F, Fyfe CL, Matheson I, Jackson DM, Horgan G, Winzell MS, Wahle KW, Ahren B, Williams LM (2008) Effect of a conjugated linoleic acid and omega-3 fatty acid mixture on body composition and adiponectin. Obesity 16:1019–1024

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Ebrahimi M, Ghayour-Mobarhan M, Rezaiean S, Hoseini M, Parizade SM, Farhoudi F, Hosseininezhad SJ, Tavallaei S, Vejdani A, Azimi-Nezhad M, Shakeri MT, Rad MA, Mobarra N, Kazemi-Bajestani SM, Ferns GA (2009) Omega-3 fatty acid supplements improve the cardiovascular risk profile of subjects with metabolic syndrome, including markers of inflammation and auto-immunity. Acta Cardiol 64:321–327

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Kelley DS, Siegel D, Fedor DM, Adkins Y, Mackey BE (2009) DHA supplementation decreases serum C-reactive protein and other markers of inflammation in hypertriglyceridemic men. J Nutr 139:495–501

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Satoh N, Shimatsu A, Kotani K, Himeno A, Majima T, Yamada K, Suganami T, Ogawa Y (2009) Highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid reduces cardio-ankle vascular index in association with decreased serum amyloid A-LDL in metabolic syndrome. Hypertens Res 32:1004–1008

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Troseid M, Seljeflot MI, Hjerkinn EM, Arnesen H (2009) Interleukin-18 is a strong predictor of cardiovascular events in elderly men with the metabolic syndrome: synergistic effect of inflammation and hyperglycemia. Diabetes Care 32:486–492

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Bitzur R, Cohen H, Cohen T, Dror TW, Herzog Y, Lifshitz Y, Lubish T, Harats D, Rubinstein A (2010) The metabolic effects of omega-3 plant sterol esters in mixed hyperlipidemic subjects. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 24:429–437

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Neff LM, Culiner J, Cunningham-Rundles S, Seidman C, Meehan D, Maturi J, Wittowski KM, Levine B, Breslow JL (2011) Algal docosahexaenoic acid affects plasma lipoprotein particle size distribution in overweight and obese adults. J Nutr 141:207–213

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Skulas-Ray AC, Kris-Etherton PM, Harris WS, Vanden Heuvel JP, Wagner PR, West SG (2011) Dose-response effects of omega-3 fatty acids on triglycerides, inflammation, and endothelial function in healthy persons with moderate hypertriglyceridemia. Am J Clin Nutr 93:243–252

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Gammelmark A, Madsen T, Varming K, Lundbye-Christensen S, Schmidt EB (2012) Low-dose fish oil supplementation increases serum adiponectin without affecting inflammatory markers in overweight subjects. Nutr Res 32:15–23

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Fayh AP, Lopes AL, da Silva AM, Reischak-Oliveira A, Friedman R (2012) Effects of 5% weight loss through diet or diet plus exercise on cardiovascular parameters of obese: a randomized clinical trial. Eur J Nutr PMID:23052625

  68. Matheson KM, Cutting JE, Mazurak VC, Robinson LE, Buchholz AC (2011) n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids increase thermic effect of food in men with metabolic syndrome. Can J Diet Pract Res 72:201–204

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Di Stasi D, Bernasconi R, Marchioli R, Marfisi RM, Rossi G, Tognoni G, Tacconi MT (2004) Early modifications of fatty acid composition in plasma phospholipids, platelets and mononucleates of healthy volunteers after low doses of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 60:183–190

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Katan MB, Deslypere JP, van Birgelen PJM, Penders M, Zegwaard M (1997) Kinetics of the incorporation of dietary fatty acids into serum cholesteryl esters, erythrocyte membranes, and adipose tissue: an 18-month controlled study. J Lipid Res 38:2012–2022

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Perez-Martinez P, Delgado-Lista J, Garcia-Rios A, McMonagle J, Gulseth HL, Ordovas JM, Shaw DI, Karlström B, Kiec-Wilk B, Blaak EE, Helal O, Malczewska-Malec M, Defoort C, Risérus U, Saris WH, Lovegrove JA, Drevon CA, Roche HM, Lopez-Miranda J (2011) Glucokinase regulatory protein genetic variant interacts with omega-3 PUFA to influence insulin resistance and inflammation in metabolic syndrome. PLoS ONE 6:e20555

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Ylönen SK, Salminen I, Lyssenko V, Virtanen SM, Groop L, Aro A, Saloranta C, Botnia Research Group (2008) The Pro12Ala polymorphism of the PPAR-gamma2 gene affects associations of fish intake and marine n-3 fatty acids with glucose metabolism. Eur J Clin Nutr 62:1432–1439

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Murphy RA, Yeung E, Mazurak VC, Mourtzakis M (2011) Influence of eicosapentaenoic acid supplementation on lean body mass in cancer cachexia. Br J Cancer 105:1469–1473

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Sijben JW, Calder PC (2007) Differential immunomodulation with long-chain n-3 PUFA in health and chronic disease. Proc Nutr Soc 66:237–259

    PubMed  Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, Room 336-B Animal Science and Nutrition Building, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada

    Lindsay E. Robinson

  2. Division of Human Nutrition, Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, 4-126 Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Research Innovation, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2P5, Canada

    Vera C. Mazurak

Authors
  1. Lindsay E. Robinson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Vera C. Mazurak
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Vera C. Mazurak.

About this article

Cite this article

Robinson, L.E., Mazurak, V.C. N-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids: Relationship to Inflammation in Healthy Adults and Adults Exhibiting Features of Metabolic Syndrome. Lipids 48, 319–332 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-013-3774-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-013-3774-6

Keywords

  • Inflammation
  • Human
  • Fatty acids
  • Diet
  • n-3 PUFA
  • Fish oil
  • Metabolic syndrome