Abstract
A good understanding of the effects of galvanizing on the short- and long-term behaviours of steel components is essential for structural design. This review paper is motivated by a series of recent reports on cracking in galvanized cold-formed tubular steel structures and the limitations of current steel product standards and steel design specifications in this field. The steel-related and galvanizing-related factors, different pre-galvanizing countermeasures for brittle cracking and the available technical documents are summarized. An extensive bibliography is provided as a basis for future research and development in this field.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
AGA. Performance of hot-dip galvanized steel products in the atmosphere, soil, water, concrete and more. American Galvanizers Association, Centennial, USA, 2010
AGA. Hot-dip galvanizing for corrosion protection – a specifiers guide. American Galvanizers Association, Centennial, USA, 2006
BCSA/GA. Galvanizing structural steelwork – an approach to the management of liquid metal assisted cracking, 1st ed. British Constructional Steelwork Association, London, UK and Galvanizers Association, West Midlands, UK, 2005
Kinstler T J. Current knowledge of the cracking of steels during galvanizing – a synthesis of the available technical literature and collective experience for the American Institute of Steel Construction. GalvaScience LLC, Springville, USA, 2005
ASTM. Standard practice for safeguarding against warpage and distortion during hot-dip galvanizing of steel assemblies, ASTM A384/A384M-07. American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, USA, 2013
ASTM. Standard practice for safeguarding against embrittlement of hot-dip galvanized structural steel products and procedure for detecting embrittlement, ASTM A143/A143M-07. American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, USA, 2014
ASTM. Standard practice for providing high-quality zinc coating (hot-dip), ASTM A385/A385M-15. American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, USA, 2015
AS/NZS. Hot-dip galvanized (zinc) coatings on fabricated ferrous articles, AS/NZS 4680:2006. Standards Australia, Sydney, Australia and Standards New Zealand, Wellington, New Zealand, 2006
ISO. Zinc coating – guidelines and recommendations for the protection against corrosion of iron and steel in structures – part 2: hot dip galvanizing, ISO 14713-2:2009. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2009
Foley C M, Ginal S J, Peronto J L, Fournelle R A. Structural analysis of sign bridge structures and luminaire supports.Wisconsin Department of Transportation Report No. 04-03. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,Marquette University, Milwaukee, USA, 2004
Packer J A, Chiew S P, Tremblay R, Martinez-Saucedo G. Effect of material properties on hollow section performance. Structures and Buildings, 2010, 163(SB6): 375–390
Stem A, Richman N, Pool C, Rios C, Anderson T, Frank K. Fatigue life of steel base plate to pole connection for traffic structures. Texas Department of Transportation Report FHWA/TX-11/9-1526-1. Center for Transportation Research, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, USA, 2011
Goyal R, Dhonde H B, Dawood M. Fatigue failure and cracking in high mast poles. Texas Department of Transportation Report No. FHWA/TX-12/0-6650-1. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, USA, 2012
Foley C M, Diekfuss J A, Wan B. Fatigue risks in the connections of sign supporting structures. Wisconsin Department of Transportation Report No. WHRP 0092-09-07. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Marquette University, Milwaukee, USA, 2013
Ocel J M. Fatigue testing of galvanized and ungalvanized socket connections. Federal Highway Administration Report No. FHWAHRT-14-066. Federal Highway Administration, McLean, USA, 2014
Feldmann M, Pinger T, Schafer D, Pope R, Smith W, Sedlacek G. Hot-dip-zinc-coating of prefabricated structural steel components, JRC Scientific and Technical Research Report No. 56810. European Commission Joint Research Centre, Luxembourg, 2010
ASTM. Standard specification for cold-formed welded carbon steel hollow structural sections (HSS), ASTM A1085/A1085M-15. American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, USA, 2015
Vander Voort G F. Embrittlement of Steels. In: ASM Handbook, Volume 01- properties and selection: irons, steels, and highperformance alloys. Geauga County, USA: ASM International, 1990, 689–736
Krauss G. Steels-processing, structure, and performance. 2nd ed. Geauga County, USA: ASM International, 2015
Cieslak M J. Cracking phenomena associated with welding. In: ASM Handbook, Volume 06- welding, brazing, and soldering. Geauga County, USA: ASM International, 1993, 88–96
Smith R B. Arc welding of carbon steels. In: ASM Handbook, Volume 06–welding, brazing, and soldering. Geauga County, USA: ASM International, 1993, 641–661
Ikoma T, Kojima O, Hatakeyama K, Kanazawa S, Hiroki T, Iezawa T. Development of steel HT60 with low susceptibility to liquid zinc embrittlement for power transmission tower. Tetsu To Hagane, 1984, 7010: 1445–1451
Abe H, Iezawa T, Kanaya K, Yashamita T, Aihora S, Kanazawa S. Study of HAZ cracking of hot-dip galvanizing steel bridges, IIW Doc IX-1795-94. International Institute of Welding, Villepinte, France, 1994
JSA. High tensile strength steel for tower structural purposes, JIS G3129:2005. Japan Standards Association, Tokyo, Japan, 2005
ASTM. Standard specification for cold-formed welded and seamless carbon steel structural tubing in rounds and shapes, ASTM A500/ A500M-13. American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, USA, 2013
CSA. General requirements for rolled or welded structural quality steel/structural quality steel, CAN/CSA-G40.20-13/G40.21-13. Canadian Standards Association, Toronto, Canada, 2013
CEN. Cold formed welded structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain steels–part 1: technical delivery conditions, EN 10219-1:2006(E). European Committee for Standardization, Brussels, Belgium, 2006
JSA. Carbon steel square and rectangular tubes for general structure, JIS G3466:2015. Japan Standards Association, Tokyo, Japan, 2015
SAC. Cold forming steel sections, GB/T 6725-2008. Standardization Administration of the People’s Republic of China, Beijing, China, 2008
SAC. Cold formed steel hollow sections for general structure–dimensions, shapes, weight and permissible deviations, GB/T 6728-2002. Standardization Administration of the People’s Republic of China, Beijing, China, 2002
CEN. Cold formed welded structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain steels–part 2: tolerances, dimensions and sectional properties, EN 10219-2:2006(E). European Committee for Standardization, Brussels, Belgium, 2006
SAC. Carbon structural steels, GB/T 700–2006. Standardization Administration of the People’s Republic of China, Beijing, China, 2006
SAC. Structural steel for bridge, GB/T 714–2015. Standardization Administration of the People’s Republic of China, Beijing, China, 2015
SAC. High strength low alloy structural steels, GB/T 1591–2008. Standardization Administration of the People’s Republic of China, Beijing, China, 2008
SAC. Cold rolled stainless steel plate, sheet and strip, GB/T 3280–2015. Standardization Administration of the People’s Republic of China, Beijing, China, 2015
SAC. Atmospheric corrosion resisting structural steel, GB/T 4171-2008. Standardization Administration of the People’s Republic of China, Beijing, China, 2008
AS/NZS. Cold-formed structural steel hollow sections, AS/NZS 1163:2016. Standards Australia, Sydney, Australia and Standards New Zealand, Wellington, New Zealand, 2016
Poag G, Zervoudis J. Influence of various parameters on steel cracking during galvanizing. In: Proceedings of AGA TechForum, Kansas, USA, 2003
CEN. Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain steels–part 1: technical delivery conditions, EN 10210-1:2006(E). European Committee for Standardization, Brussels, Belgium, 2006
CEN. Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain steels–part 2: tolerances, dimensions and sectional properties, EN 10210-1:2006(E). European Committee for Standardization, Brussels, Belgium, 2006
ASTM. Standard specification for hot-formed welded and seamless carbon steel structural tubing, ASTM A501/A501M-14. American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, USA, 2014
Chajes A, Britvec S J, Winter G. Effects of cold-straining on structural sheet steels. Journal of the Structural Division. Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, 1963, 892: 1–32
Karren K W. Corner properties of cold-formed steel shapes. Journal of the Stuctural Division. Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, 1967, 931: 401–432
Karren K W, Winter G. Effects of cold-forming on light gage steel members. Journal of the Stuctural Division. Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, 1967, 931: 433–469
Sun M, Packer J A. Direct forming versus continuous forming, for cold-formed square hollow sections. In: Proceedings of the 14th. International Symposium on Tubular Structures, London, UK, 2012, 739–746
Davison T A, Birkemoe P C. Column behaviour of cold-formed hollow structural steel shapes. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 1983, 101: 125–141
Key P W, Hasan S W, Hancock G J. Column behaviour of coldformed hollow sections. Journal of Structural Engineering, 1988, 1142: 390–407
Zhao X L, Hancock G J. Square and rectangular hollow sections subject to combined actions. Journal of Structural Engineering, 1992, 1183: 648–667
Key P W, Hancock G J. A theoretical investigation of the column behaviour of cold-formed square hollow sections. Thin-walled Structures, 1993, 161–4: 31–64
Wilkinson T, Hancock G J. Tests for the compact web slenderness of cold-formed rectangular hollow sections, Research Report No. R744. University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia, 1997
Guo Y J, Zhu A Z, Pi Y L, Tin-Loi F. Experimental study on compressive strengths of thick-walled cold-formed sections. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 2007, 635: 718–723
Gardner L, Saari N, Wang F. Comparative experimental study of hot-rolled and cold-formed rectangular hollow sections. Thinwalled Structures, 2010, 487: 495–507
Tong L W, Hou G, Chen Y Y, Zhou F, Shen K, Yang A. Experimental investigation on longitudinal residual stresses for cold-formed thick-walled square hollow sections. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 2012, 73: 105–116
Sun M, Packer J A. Direct-formed and continuous-formed rectangular hollow sections–comparison of static properties. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 2014, 92: 67–78
Sun M, Packer J A. Charpy V-notch impact toughness of coldformed rectangular hollow sections. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 2014, 97: 114–126
Sun M, Packer J A. High strain rate behaviour of cold-formed rectangular hollow sections. Engineering Structures, 2014, 62-63: 181–192
Feldmann M, Eichler B, Kühn B, Stranghöner N, Dahl W, Langenberg P, Kouhi J, Pope R, Sedlacek G, Ritakallio P, Iglesias G, Puthli R S, Packer J A, Krampen J. Choice of steel material to avoid brittle fracture for hollow section structures, JRC Scientific and Policy Report No. 72702. European Commission Joint Research Centre, Luxembourg, 2012
Sedlacek G, Feldmann M, Kühn B, Tschickardt D, Höhler S, Müller C, Hensen W, Stranghöner N, Dahl W, Langenberg P, Münstermann S, Brozetti J, Raoul J, Pope R, Bijlaard F. Commentary and worked examples to EN 1993-1-10 “Material toughness and through thickness properties” and other toughness oriented rules in EN 1993, JRC Scientific and Policy Report No. 47278. European Commission Joint Research Centre, Luxembourg, 2008
ISO. Static design procedure for welded hollow-section joints–recommendations, ISO 14346: 2013. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2013
CECS. Technical specification for structures with steel hollow sections, CECS 280:2010. China Association for Engineering Construction Standardization, Beijing, China, 2010
ASTM. Standard test methods and definitions for mechanical testing of steel products, ASTM A370-17. American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, USA, 2017
Packer J A, Frater G S. Recommended effective throat sizes for flare groove welds to HSS. Engineering Journal (New York), 2005, 421: 31–44
SAC. Metallic coatings–hot dip galvanized coatings on fabricated iron and steel articles–specifications and test methods, GB/T 13912-2002. Standardization Administration of the People’s Republic of China, Beijing, China, 2002
Somodi B, Kovesdi B. Residual stress measurements on coldformed HSS hollow section columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 2017, 128: 706–720
Chiew S P. Assessment of BS EN10219 200 × 200mm SHS with corner surface defects. Technical Report, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 2007
Kikuchi M, Iezawa T. Effect of stress-concentration on liquid metal embrittlement cracking of steel by molten zinc. Journal of the Society of Materials Science, Japan, 1982, 31342: 271–276
Kominami Y, Yano K, Ishimoto K, Terasaki T, Mukae S. Thermal stress of plate and pipe occurred during dipping in the molten zinc bath–liquid metal embrittlement of welded joint of steel during hot dip galvanizing (report 2). Quarterly Journal of the Japan Welding Society, 1985, 32: 347–352
Zervoudis J, Anderson G. A review of bath alloy additives and their impact on the quality of the galvanized coating. In: Proceedings of the 6th. Asia Pacific General Galvanizing Conference, Cairns, Australia, 2005
Gagne M. Industrial testing of zinc-bismuth alloys for afterfabrication hot dip galvanizing. In: Proceedings of the 18th International Galvanizing Conference, Birmingham, UK, 1997
Gilles M, Sokolowski R. The zinc-tin galvanizing alloy: a unique zinc alloy for galvanizing any reactive steel grade. In: Proceedings of the 18th. International Galvanizing Conference, Birmingham, UK, 1997
Pankert R, Dhaussy D, Beguin P, Gilles M. Three years industrial experience with the galveco alloy. In: Proceedings of the 20th. International Galvanizing Conference, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 2003
Kosteski N, Packer J A, Puthli R S. Notch toughness of internationally produced hollow structural sections. Journal of Structural Engineering, 2005, 1312: 279–286
Mori M, Nakagomi T, Suzuki I, Kim C. Proposal of prevention method on cracks at hot-dipped galvanization of rectangular hollow section steel pipes by cold forming. Journal of Structural and Construction Engineering, 2009, 74638: 739–746
Abe K. Countermeasures for steel structure brittle cracking caused by hot dip galvanizing. In: Seminar on Design of Steel Structures–Structural Hollow Sections, Department of Civil Engineering, the University of Hong Kong, China, 2011
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from the Canadian Institute of Steel Construction (CISC) and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sun, M., Packer, J.A. Hot-dip galvanizing of cold-formed steel hollow sections: a state-of-the-art review. Front. Struct. Civ. Eng. 13, 49–65 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11709-017-0448-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11709-017-0448-0