Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Using ground penetrating radar to assess the variability of snow water equivalent and melt in a mixed canopy forest, Northern Colorado

Frontiers of Earth Science volume 11, pages 482–495 (2017)Cite this article

Abstract

Snow is an important environmental variable in headwater systems that controls hydrological processes such as streamflow, groundwater recharge, and evapotranspiration. These processes will be affected by both the amount of snow available for melt and the rate at which it melts. Snow water equivalent (SWE) and snowmelt are known to vary within complex subalpine terrain due to terrain and canopy influences. This study assesses this variability during the melt season using ground penetrating radar to survey multiple plots in northwestern Colorado near a snow telemetry (SNOTEL) station. The plots include south aspect and flat aspect slopes with open, coniferous (subalpine fir, Abies lasiocarpa and engelman spruce, Picea engelmanii), and deciduous (aspen, populous tremuooides) canopy cover. Results show the high variability for both SWE and loss of SWE during spring snowmelt in 2014. The coefficient of variation for SWE tended to increase with time during snowmelt whereas loss of SWE remained similar. Correlation lengths for SWE were between two and five meters with melt having correlation lengths between two and four meters. The SNOTEL station regularly measured higher SWE values relative to the survey plots but was able to reasonably capture the overall mean loss of SWE during melt. Ground Penetrating Radar methods can improve future investigations with the advantage of non-destructive sampling and the ability to estimate depth, density, and SWE.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

References

  • Adam J C, Hamlet A F, Lettenmaier D P (2009). Implications of global climate change for snowmelt hydrology in the twenty-first century. Hydrol Processes, 23(7): 962–972

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andreadis K M, Storck P, Lettenmaier D P (2009). Modeling snow accumulation and ablation processes in forested environments. Water Resour Res, 45(5)

    Google Scholar 

  • Bales R C, Hopmans J W, O’Geen A T, Meadows M, Hartsough P C, Kirchner P, Hunsaker C T, Beaudette D (2011). Soil moisture response to snowmelt and rainfall in a Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forest. Vadose Zone J, 10(3): 786–799

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bales R C, Molotch N P, Painter T H, Dettinger M D, Rice R, Dozier J (2006). Mountain hydrology of the western United States. Water Resour Res, 42(8): W08432

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blöschl G (1999). Scaling issues in snow hydrology. Hydrol Processes, 13(14–15): 2149–2175

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blöschl G, Kirnbauer R (1992). An analysis of snow cover patterns in a small alpine catchment. Hydrol Processes, 6(1): 99–109

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Broxton P D, Harpold A A, Biederman J A, Troch P A, Molotch N P, Brooks P D (2015). Quantifying the effects of vegetation structure on snow accumulation and ablation in mixed-conifer forests. Ecohydrology, 8(6): 1073–1094

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cao J, Liu C, Zhang W (2012). Response of rock-fissure seepage to snowmelt in Mount Taihang slope-catchment, North China. Water Sci Technol, 67(1): 124–130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark M P, Hendrikx J, Slater A G, Kavetski D, Anderson B, Cullen N, Kerr T, Örn Hreinsson E, Woods R A (2011). Representing spatial variability of snow water equivalent in hydrologic and land-surface models: a review. Water Resour Res, 47(7): W07539

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clilverd HM, White DM, Tidwell A C, Rawlins MA (2011). Sensitivity of northern groundwater recharge to climate change: a case study in Northwest Alaska. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 47(6): 1228–1240

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cline D, Yueh S, Chapman B, Stankov B, Gasiewski A, Masters D, Elder K, Kelly R, Painter T H, Miller S, Katzberg S, Mahrt L (2009). NASA Cold Land Processes Experiment (CLPX 2002/03): airborne remote sensing. J Hydrometeorol, 10(1): 338–346

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clow DW (2010). Changes in the timing of snowmelt and streamflow in Colorado: a response to recent warming. J Clim, 23(9): 2293–2306

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daly S F, Davis R, Ochs E, Pangburn T (2000). An approach to spatially distributed snow modelling of the Sacramento and San Joaquin basins, California. Hydrol Processes, 14(18): 3257–3271

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ebel B A, Hinckley E S, Martin D A (2012). Soil-water dynamics and unsaturated storage during snowmelt following wildfire. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci, 16(5): 1401–1417

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eiriksson D, Whitson M, Luce C H, Marshall H P, Bradford J, Benner S G, Black T, Hetrick H, McNamara J P (2013). An evaluation of the hydrologic relevance of lateral flow in snow at hillslope and catchment scales. Hydrol Processes, 27(5): 640–654

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elder K, Cline D, Liston G E, Armstrong R (2009). NASA Cold Land Processes Experiment (CLPX 2002/03): field measurements of snowpack properties and soil moisture. J Hydrometeorol, 10(1): 320–329

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elder K, Dozier J, Michaelsen J (1991). Snow accumulation and distribution in an Alpine watershed. Water Resour Res, 27(7): 1541–1552

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fang S, Xu L, Zhu Y, Liu Y, Liu Z, Pei H, Yan J, Zhang H (2015). An integrated information system for snowmelt flood early-warning based on internet of things. Inf Syst Front, 17(2): 321–335

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fassnacht S R, Cherry M L, Venable N B H, Saavedra F (2016). Snow and albedo climate change impacts across the United States Northern Great Plains. Cryosphere, 10(1): 329–339

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fassnacht S R, Derry J E (2010). Defining similar regions of snow in the Colorado River Basin using self-organizing maps. Water Resour Res, 46(4): W04507

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fassnacht S R, Hultstrand M (2015). Snowpack variability and trends at long-term stations in northern Colorado, USA. International Association of Hydrological Sciences, 92: 1–6

    Google Scholar 

  • Fassnacht S R, Williams S R, Corrao MV (2009). Changes in the surface roughness of snow from millimetre to metre scales. Ecol Complex, 6 (3): 221–229

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flint A L, Flint L E, Dettinger M D (2008). Modeling soil moisture processes and recharge under a melting snowpack. Vadose Zone J, 7 (1): 350–357

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Granlund N, Lundberg A, Feiccabrino J, Gustafsson D (2009). Laboratory test of snow wetness influence on electrical conductivity measured with ground penetrating radar. Hydrol Res, 40(1): 33–44

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graybeal D, Leathers D (2006). Snowmelt-related flood risk in Appalachia: first estimates from a historical snow climatology. J Appl Meteorol Climatol, 45(1): 178–193

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gusmeroli A, Grosse G (2012). Ground penetrating radar detection of subsnow slush on ice-covered lakes in interior Alaska. Cryosphere, 6 (6): 1435–1443

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harpold A, Brooks P, Rajagopal S, Heidbuchel I, Jardine A, Stielstra C (2012). Changes in snowpack accumulation and ablation in the intermountain west. Water Resour Res, 48(11): W11501

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harpold A A, Biederman J A, Condon K, Merino M, Korgaonkar Y, Nan T, Sloat L L, Ross M, Brooks P D (2014). Changes in snow accumulation and ablation following the Las Conchas Forest Fire, New Mexico, USA. Ecohydrology, 7(2): 440–452

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harpold A A, Molotch N P, Musselman K N, Bales R C, Kirchner P B, Litvak M, Brooks P D (2015). Soil moisture response to snowmelt timing in mixed-conifer subalpine forests. Hydrol Processes, 29(12): 2782–2798

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heilig A, Mitterer C, Schmid L, Wever N, Schweizer J, Marshall H P, Eisen O (2015). Seasonal and diurnal cycles of liquid water in snow- Measurements and modeling. J Geophys Res Earth Surf, 120(10): 2139–2154

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heilig A, Schneebeli M, Eisen O (2009). Upward-looking groundpenetrating radar for monitoring snowpack stratigraphy. Cold Reg Sci Technol, 59(2–3): 152–162

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jencso K, McGlynn B, Gooseff M, Wondzell S, Bencala K, Marshall L (2009). Hydrologic connectivity between landscapes and streams: transferring reach-and plot-scale understanding to the catchment scale. Water Resour Res, 45(4): W04428

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jencso K G, McGlynn B L (2011). Hierarchical controls on runoff generation: topographically driven hydrologic connectivity, geology, and vegetation. Water Resour Res, 47(11): W11527

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson J B, Schaefer G L (2002). The influence of thermal, hydrologic, and snow deformation mechanisms on snow water equivalent pressure sensor accuracy. Hydrol Processes, 16(18): 3529–3542

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Litaor M I, Williams M, Seastedt T R (2008). Topographic controls on snow distribution, soil moisture, and species diversity of herbaceous alpine vegetation, Niwot Ridge, Colorado. J Geophys Res, 113(G2): G02008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu F, Williams M W, Caine N (2004). Source waters and flow paths in an alpine catchment, Colorado Front Range, United States. Water Resour Res, 40(9): W09401

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • López-Moreno J, Fassnacht S, Heath J, Musselman K, Revuelto J, Latron J, Moran-Tejeda E, Jonas T (2013). Small scale spatial variability of snow density and depth over complex alpine terrain: implications for estimating snow water equivalent. Adv Water Resour, 55: 40–52

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • López-Moreno J I, Fassnacht S R, Beguería S, Latron J B P (2011). Variability of snow depth at the plot scale: implications for mean depth estimation and sampling strategies. Cryosphere, 5(3): 617–629

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • López-Moreno J I, Latron J (2008). Influence of canopy density on snow distribution in a temperate mountain range. Hydrol Processes, 22(1): 117–126

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lundberg A, Ala-Aho P, Eklo O, Klove B, Kvaerner J, Stumpp C (2016). Snow and frost: implications for spatiotemporal infiltration patterns–A review. Hydrol Processes, 30(8): 1230–1250

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lundberg A, Richardson-Naslund C, Andersson C (2006). Snow density variations: consequences for ground-penetrating radar. Hydrol Processes, 20(7): 1483–1495

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lundquist J, Cayan D (2002). Seasonal and spatial patterns in diurnal cycles in streamflow in the western United States. J Hydrometeorol, 3 (5): 591–603

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lundquist J, Dettinger M, Cayan D (2005). Snow-fed streamflow timing at different basin scales: case study of the Tuolumne River above Hetch Hetchy, Yosemite, California. Water Resour Res, 41(7): W07005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Magnusson J, Kobierska F, Huxol S, Hayashi M, Jonas T, Kirchner J W (2014). Melt water driven stream and groundwater stage fluctuations on a glacier forefield (Dammagletscher, Switzerland). Hydrol Processes, 28(3): 823–836

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McNamara J P, Chandler D, Seyfried M, Achet S (2005). Soil moisture states, lateral flow, and streamflow generation in a semi-arid, snowmelt-driven catchment. Hydrol Processes, 19(20): 4023–4038

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitterer C, Heilig A, Schweizer J, Eisen O (2011). Upward-looking ground-penetrating radar for measuring wet-snow properties. Cold Reg Sci Technol, 69(2–3): 129–138

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moeser D, Mazzotti G, Helbig N, Jonas T (2016). Representing spatial variability of forest snow: implementation of a new interception model. Water Resour Res, 52(2): 1208–1226

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Molotch N P, Brooks P D, Burns S P, Litvak M, Monson R K, McConnell J R, Musselman K (2009). Ecohydrological controls on snowmelt partitioning in mixed-conifer sub-alpine forests. Ecohydrology, 2(2): 129–142

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Molotch N P, Colee M T, Bales R C, Dozier J (2005). Estimating the spatial distribution of snow water equivalent in an alpine basin using binary regression tree models: the impact of digital elevation data and independent variable selection. Hydrol Processes, 19(7): 1459–1479

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Molotch N P, Meromy L (2014). Physiographic and climatic controls on snow cover persistence in the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Hydrol Processes, 28(16): 4573–4586

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Musselman K N, Molotch N P, Brooks P D (2008). Effects of vegetation on snow accumulation and ablation in a mid-latitude sub-alpine forest. Hydrol Processes, 22(15): 2767–2776

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Musselman K N, Molotch N P, Margulis S A, Kirchner P B, Bales R C (2012). Influence of canopy structure and direct beam solar irradiance on snowmelt rates in a mixed conifer forest. Agric Meteorol, 161: 46–56

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mutzner R, Weijs S, Tarolli P, Calaf M, Oldroyd H, Parlange M (2015). Controls on the diurnal streamflow cycles in two subbasins of an alpine headwater catchment. Water Resour Res, 51(5): 3403–3418

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Previati M, Godio A, Ferraris S (2011). Validation of spatial variability of snowpack thickness and density obtained with GPR and TDR methods. J Appl Geophys, 75(2): 284–293

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rice R, Bales R C, Painter T H, Dozier J (2011). Snow water equivalent along elevation gradients in the Merced and Tuolumne River basins of the Sierra Nevada. Water Resour Res, 47(8): W08515

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richer E E, Kampf S K, Fassnacht S R, Moore C C (2013). Spatiotemporal index for analyzing controls on snow climatology: application in the Colorado Front Range. Phys Geogr, 34(2): 85–107

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmid L, Koch F, Heilig A, Prasch M, Eisen O, Mauser W, Schweizer J (2015). A novel sensor combination (upGPR-GPS) to continuously and nondestructively derive snow cover properties. Geophys Res Lett, 42(9): 3397–3405

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sexstone G A, Fassnacht S R (2014). What drives basin scale spatial variability of snowpack properties in northern Colorado? Cryosphere, 8(2): 329–344

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seyfried M S, Grant L E, Marks D, Winstral A, McNamara J (2009). Simulated soil water storage effects on streamflow generation in a mountainous snowmelt environment, Idaho, USA. Hydrol Processes, 23(6): 858–873

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh K K, Datt P, Sharma V, Ganju A, Mishra V D, Parashar A, Chauhan R (2011). Snow depth and layer interface estimation using Ground Penetrating Radar. Curr Sci, 100(10): 1532–1539

    Google Scholar 

  • Sommerfeld R A, Bales R C, Mast A (1994). Spatial statistics of snowmelt flow-data from lysimeters and aerial Photos. Geophys Res Lett, 21(25): 2821–2824

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Staples J M, Adams E E, Slaughter A E, McKittrick L R (2006). Slope scale modeling of snow surface temperature in topographically complex terrain. In: Proceedings of 2006 International Snow Science Workshop: 806–814

    Google Scholar 

  • Storck P, Lettenmaier D P, Bolton S M (2002). Measurement of snow interception and canopy effects on snow accumulation and melt in a mountainous maritime climate, Oregon, United States. Water Resour Res, 38(11): 1223

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • USGS (2015). 3DEP products and services: The national Map, 3D Elevation Program Web page. accessed (November, 2015), edited, http://nationalmap.gov/3dep_prodserv.html

    Google Scholar 

  • Varhola A, Coops N C, Weiler M, Moore R D (2010). Forest canopy effects on snow accumulation and ablation: an integrative review of empirical results. J Hydrol (Amst), 392(3-4): 219–233

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webb R W, Fassnacht S R (2016). Snow density, snow depth, and soil moisture at Dry Lake study site in northern Colorado in 2014. Colorado State University

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb R W, Fassnacht S R, Gooseff M N (2015). Wetting and drying variability of the shallow subsurface beneath a snowpack in California’s Southern Sierra Nevada. Vadose Zone J, 14(8): doi: 10.2136/vzj2014.12.0182

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams C J, McNamara J P, Chandler D G (2009a). Controls on the temporal and spatial variability of soil moisture in a mountainous landscape: the signature of snow and complex terrain. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci, 13(7): 1325–1336

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams MW, Seibold C, Chowanski K (2009b). Storage and release of solutes from a subalpine seasonal snowpack: soil and stream water response, Niwot Ridge, Colorado. Biogeochemistry, 95(1): 77–94

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams M W, Sommerfeld R, Massman S, Rikkers M (1999). Correlation lengths of meltwater flow through ripe snowpacks, Colorado Front Range, USA. Hydrol Processes, 13(12–13): 1807–1826

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Winkler R D, Spittlehouse D L, Golding D L (2005). Measured differences in snow accumulation and melt among clearcut, juvenile, and mature forests in southern British Columbia. Hydrol Processes, 19(1): 51–62

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao Q, Liu Z, Ye B, Qin Y, Wei Z, Fang S (2009). A snowmelt runoff forecasting model coupling WRF and DHSVM. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci, 13(10): 1897–1906

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

I would like to acknowledge Dr. Dennis Harry at Colorado State University who allowed me to borrow the Ground Penetrating Radar equipment and taught the course in geophysical methods that allowed me to interpret this data. This study would not have been possible otherwise. I would also like to recognize the two anonymous reviewers whose comments greatly improved the analysis and writing of this paper from its original version.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80309-0450, USA

    Ryan W. Webb

Authors
  1. Ryan W. Webb
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ryan W. Webb.

Additional information

Ryan W. Webb received his Ph.D. in Civil Engineering from Colorado State University in 2016 with a focus in hydrologic science and engineering. He has a range of experience in engineering consulting work for water resource and geotechnical projects. He has also been happily involved with multiple EngineersWithout Borders projects in Bolivia and El Salvador concerning drinking water quality for local communities. Dr. Webb is currently a postdoctoral fellow researching the hydrologic controls on water flowing through snow at the Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research at the University of Colorado, Boulder. More information can be found concerning Dr. Webb’s research and other professional and academic experiences on his website: webbhydrology.weebly.com or by emailing him at ryan.w.webb@colorado.edu.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Webb, R.W. Using ground penetrating radar to assess the variability of snow water equivalent and melt in a mixed canopy forest, Northern Colorado. Front. Earth Sci. 11, 482–495 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11707-017-0645-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11707-017-0645-0

Keywords

search

Navigation