Abstract
A phenomenological model of screen-printed silver contact to an n-doped, p-type multi-crystalline Si wafer, based on extensive electrical, morphological, and compositional evaluations, has been developed. Rapid and quasi steady state heating configurations over broad (150–925°C) temperature ranges were investigated. Conventional rapid thermal annealing (RTA) with a conveyor belt was used for a rapid and custom-designed three-zone quartz tube furnace (QTF) for slow temperature variations. Lowest contact resistivity at 0.15 mΩ cm2 was observed in RTA horizontal configuration which was 25 times smaller than the same in QTF. RTA contact resistivity measurements revealed a minimum at 870°C while linear reduction in contact resistance was observed for the QTF configuration. The silver/silicon contact was based on three physical mechanisms: (1) migration of Si into glass and silver regions of the paste, (2) intermixing of silver and silicon (nano- and micrometer scale), and (3) epitaxial growth of silver/silicon crystallites. Experimental evidence of silicon migration was supported through extensive phosphorous concentration measurements from silicon and silver/silicon regions. The glass film with a colloidal distribution of randomly-distributed silver/silicon crystallites leads to lower contact resistance. Rapid temperature fluctuations facilitate development of Ag/Si crystallites. The higher contact resistance in quasi steady state thermal configuration was attributed to glass films with reduced density of Ag/Si crystallites. This disadvantage may be eliminated through post-contact, forming gas annealing at lower temperatures.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
V. Shanmugam, J. Cunnusamy, A. Khanna, P.K. Basu, Y. Zhang, C. Chen, A.F. Stassen, M.B. Boreland, T. Mueller, B. Hoex, and A.G. Aberle, IEEE J. Photovoltaics 4, 168 (2014).
F.J. Bottari, W. Montanez-Ortiz, D.C. Wong, P.J. Richter, F.C. Dimock, M. Bowers, and T. Bao, in Proceedings of the 35th IEEE Photovolt. Spec. Conf., Honolulu, HI, June 20–25, 2010, pp. 1315–1317.
K.D. Shetty, M.B. Boreland, V. Shanmugam, J. Cunnusamy, C.K. Wu, S. Iggo, and H. Antoniadis, Energy Procedia 33, 70 (2013).
P. Doshi, J. Mejia, K. Tatel, S. Kamra, A. Rohatgi, S. Narayanian, R. Singh, and S. Court, in Proceedings of the 25th IEEE Photovolt. Spec. Conf., Washington, DC, May 13-17, 1996, pp. 5–8.
A. Ebong, M. Hilali, V. Upadhyaya, B. Rounsaville, I. Ebong, and A. Rohatgi, in Proceedings of the 31st IEEE Photovolt. Spec. Conf, Lake Buena Vista, FL, Jan. 3–7, 2005, pp. 1173–1176.
S. Wu, W. Wang, L. Li, D. Yu, L. Huang, and W. Liu, RSC Adv., 24384 (2014).
G. Schubert, F. Huster, and P. Fath, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 90, 3399 (2006).
C. Ballif, D. M. Huijic, A. Hessler-Wyser, and G. Willeke, in Proceedings of the 29th IEEE Photovolt. Spec. Conf., New Orleans, LA, May 19–24, 2002, pp. 360–363.
M.M. Hilali, M.M. Al-Jassim, B. To, H. Moutinho, A. Rohatgi, and S. Asher, J. Electrochem. Soc. 152, G742 (2005).
D. M. Huljic, D. Biro, R. Preu, C.C. Castillo, and R. Ludemann, in Proceedings of the 28th IEEE Photovolt. Spec. Conf., Anchorage, AK, Sept. 15–22, 2000, pp. 379–382.
K. Kim, S.K. Dhungel, U. Gangopadhyay, J. Yoo, C.W. Seok, and J. Yi, Thin Solid Films 511–512, 228 (2006).
G.K. Reeves and H.B. Harrison, IEEE Electron Device Lett. 3, 111 (1982).
E.G. Woelk, H. Krautle, and H. Beneking, IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 33, 19 (1986).
P.N. Vinod, J. Mater. Sci.: Mater. Electron. 22, 1248 (2011).
R. Hoenig, D. Voessing, F. Clement, D. Biro, R. Preu, and J. Wilde, Energy Procedia 38, 737 (2013).
A. Ebong and N. Chen, in Proceedings of the 9th Internat. Conf. on High Capacity Optical Networks and Emerging/Enabling Technologies, Istanbul, Dec. 12-14, 2012, pp. 102–109.
D.K. Schroder, Semiconductor Material and Device Characterization (New York: Wiley, 2006), p. 140.
D. K. Schroder and D. L. Meier, IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, ED-31, 637 (1984).
A. Goetzberger, J. Knobloch, and B. Voss, Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells (New York: Wiley, 1998), p. 110.
H.H. Berger, J. Electrochem. Soc. 119, 507 (1972).
C.P. Winsor, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 18, 1 (1932).
G.C. Cheek, R.P. Mertens, R. Van Overstraeten, and L. Frisson, IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 31, 602 (1984).
M. Prudenziati, L. Moro, B. Morten, F. Sirotti, and L. Sardi, Act. Passiv. Electron. Compon. 13, 133 (1989).
B. Thuillier, J.P. Boyeaux, A. Kaminski, and A. Laugier, Mater. Sci. Eng. B Solid-State Mater. Adv. Technol., 102, 58 (2003).
C. Ballif, D.M. Huljić, G. Willeke, and A. Hessler-Wyser, Appl. Phys. Lett., 82, 1878 (2003).
M.M. Hilali, K. Nakayashiki, C. Khadilkar, R.C. Reedy, A. Rohatgi, A. Shaikh, S. Kim, and S. Sridharan, J. Electrochem. Soc. 153, A5 (2006).
G. Schubert, Ph.D. thesis, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany (2006).
B. Sopori, V. Mehta, P. Rupnowski, J. Appel, M. Romero, H. Moutinho, D. Domine, B. To, R. Reedy, A. Shaikh, N. Merchant, C. Khadilkar, D. Carlson, and M. Bennet, NREL Proc., 100 (2007).
C.H. Lin, S.Y. Tsai, S.P. Hsu, and M.H. Hsieh, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 92, 1011 (2008).
Z.G. Li, L. Liang, and L.K. Cheng, J. Appl. Phys. 105, 19 (2009).
K. Hong, S. Cho, J.S. You, J. Jeong, S. Bea, and J. Huh, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 93, 898 (2009).
S. Kontermann, M. Hörteis, M. Kasemann, A. Grohe, R. Preu, E. Pink, and T. Trupke, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 93, 1630 (2009).
M.-I. Jeong, S.-E. Park, D.-H. Kim, J.-S. Lee, Y.-C. Park, K.-S. Ahn, and C.-J. Choi, J. Electrochem. Soc. 157, H934 (2010).
E. Cabrera, S. Olibet, J. Glatz-Reichenbach, R. Kopecek, D. Reinke, and G. Schubert, J. Appl. Phys. 110, 114511 (2011).
C.H. Lin, S.P. Hsu, and W.C. Hsu, Silicon Wafer-Based Technol., 93 (2011).
Z.G. Li, L. Liang, A.S. Ionkin, B.M. Fish, M.E. Lewittes, L.K. Cheng, and K.R. Mikeska, J. Appl. Phys. 110, 074304 (2011).
M. Eberstein, H. Falk-Windisch, M. Peschel, J. Schilm, T. Seuthe, M. Wenzel, C. Kretzschmar, and U. Partsch, Energy Procedia 27, 522 (2012).
S. Fritz, S. Riegel, A. Herguth, M. König, M. Hörteis, and G. Hahn, Energy Procedia 67, 43 (2015).
W. Wu, C. Chan, M. Lewittes, L. Zhang, and K. Roelofs, Energy Procedia 92, 984 (2016).
J.D. Fields, M.I. Ahmad, V.L. Pool, J. Yu, D.G. Van Campen, P.A. Parilla, M.F. Toney, and M.F.A.M. van Hest, Nat. Commun. 7, 11143 (2016).
P. Kumar, M. Pfeffer, B. Willsch, O. Eibl, L. Yedra, S. Eswara, J.N. Audinot, and T. Wirtz, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 160, 398 (2017).
D.K. Sarkar, S. Dhara, K.G.M. Nair, and S. Chowdhury, Nucl. Instruments Methods Phys. Res. Sect. B, 168, 215 (2000).
G. Utlu and N. Artunç, Appl. Surf. Sci. 310, 248 (2014).
F. Rollert, N.A. Stolwijk, and H. Mehrer, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 20, 1148 (1987).
L. Chen, Y. Zeng, P. Nyugen, and T.L. Alford, Mater. Chem. Phys. 76, 224 (2002).
L. Weber, Metall. Mater. Trans. A 33, 1145 (2002).
S.W. Jones, Diffusion in silicon (Georgetown: IC Knowledge LLC, 2008), p. 7.
M. Van Craen, L. Frisson, and F.C. Adams, Surf. Interface Anal. 6, 257 (1984).
A. Hiraki and E. Lugujjo, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 9, 155 (1971).
J.W. Tringe, G. Vanamu, and S.H. Zaidi, J. Appl. Phys. 104, 094317 (2008).
M. Asoro, J. Damiano, and P. Ferreira, Microsc. Microanal. 15, 706 (2009).
M.S. Martin, N.D. Theodore, C.-C. Wei, and L. Shao, Sci. Rep. 4, 6744 (2014).
R.C. Jaeger, Introduction to Microelectronic Fabrication (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc, 2002), p. 48.
M.L. Zheludkevich, A.G. Gusakov, A.G. Voropaev, A.A. Vecher, E.N. Kozyrski, and S.A Raspopov, Oxid. Met., 61, 39 (2004).
S. Bin Cho, H.S. Kim, and J.Y. Huh, Acta Mater. 70, 1 (2014).
Acknowledgments
Authors would like to thank Malaysian government for partial funding of this research through PRGS, FRGS, ERGS, AP, ETP, and MIDA grants. We would also like to thank Ms. S. Seow for invaluable assistance with SEM and EDX measurements.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ahmad, S.M., Leong, C.S., Winder, R.W. et al. A Phenomenological Model of the Screen-Printed, Silver Paste Contact to Si Substrate. J. Electron. Mater. 47, 6791–6810 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11664-018-6605-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11664-018-6605-y