Abstract
Rishi Khola, a sub-watershed of Teesta river, traverses along the Main Central Thrust (MCT) with a multitude of litho units and structural entities. This study examines the impact of tectonic and lithologic controls in configuring the catchment characteristics of Rishi Khola, Sikkim, India. Corrected SRTM 30 m DEM and Landsat 8 satellite image have been used for extracting the river network, preparing the sub-catchments, the longitudinal profile and thereby calculating the morphotectonic indices. An aggregated tectonic index (ATI) has been prepared to map the intensity of tectonic perturbations in the fluvial environment using the entropy weightage method (EWM) and Weighted Linear Combination (WLC). The undulating nature of the longitudinal profile with prominent knick points confirms the presence of tectonic disturbances and lithological variations. From all the computed morphotectonic indices and the ATI, it has been evident that the region has experienced surface deformations. When viewed at the entire catchment, the morphotectonic indices suggest ample responses to the tectonic perturbations due to the dominance of lithology-controlled hill slope processes and fluvial erosion. The spatiality of the tectonic sensitiveness is rather concentrated into certain pockets of differential stress field formed due to fault thrusting of the Himalayas. The study chiefly focuses on the peculiarity of the watershed which displays a complex response of tectonic and rock structure; wherein the proposed methodology has been successful in excavating such complex responses around the Himalayan thrusts.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alaei M, Dehbozorgi M, Ghassemi MR, Nozaem R (2017) Evaluation of relative tectonic activity of Buin Zahra-Avaj area, northern Iran. Arabian J Geosci 10: 229. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-017-3025-x
Al-Kubaisi MSH, Ibraheem LK (2015) Effect of tectonic activity on Kersi fan in Sinjar anticline northwest Iraq using GIS techniques. Arabian J Geosci 8: 3755–3765. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-014-1469-9
Ali SA, Ikbal J (2020) Assessment of relative active tectonics in parts of Aravalli mountain range, India: implication of geomorphic indices, remote sensing, and GIS. Arabian J Geosci 13: 57. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-019-5028-2
Alipoor R, Poorkermani M, Zare M, Hamdouni RE (2011) Active tectonic assessment around Rudbar Lorestan dam site, High Zagros Belt (SW of Iran). Geomorphology 128: 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2010.10.014
Alizadeh A, Hormozi Moghadam H, Seraj M (2020) DEM-derived geomorphic indices for assessment of tectonic activity at the Dara anticlinal oil structure within the Zagros fold-thrust belt, southwestern Iran. Arabian J Geosci 13: 192. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-020-5156-8
Alvarez W (1999) Drainage on evolving fold-thrust belts:a study of transverse canyons in the Apennies. Basin Res 11:267–284.
Audin L, Herail G, Requelme R, Darrozes J, et al. (2003) Geomorphological markers of faulting and neotectonic activityalong the western Andean margin, northern Chile. J Quat Sci V 18(8): 681–694. https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.787
Ayaz S, Dhali MK (2020) Longitudinal profiles and geomorphic indiuces analysis on tectonic evidence of fluvial form, process and landform deformation of Eastern Himalayan Rivers, India. Geology Landsc Ecol 4: 11–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/24749508.2019.1568130
Bali BS, Wani AA, Khan RA, et al. (2016) Morphotectonic analysis of the Madhumati watershed, northeast Kashmir Valley. Arabian J Geosci 9: 390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-016-2395-9
Bhadran A, Vijesh VK, Gopinath G (2018) Morpho-hypsometric evolution of the Karuvannur River Basin, a tropical river in central Kerala, southwestern peninsular India. Arabian J Geosci 11: 430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-018-3794-x
Bhattacharya K, Mitra G (2011) Strain softening along the MCT zone from the Sikkim Himalaya: Relative roles of Quartz and Micas. J Struc. Geol, 33: 1105–1121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2011.03.008
Bhattacharyya K, Mitra G, Kwoon S (2015) Geometry and Kinematics of the Darjeeling - Sikkim Himalaya, India: Implications for the evolution of the Himalayan Fold-Thrust Belt. J Asian Earth Sci 113: 778–796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2015.09.008
Bull WB, McFadden LD (1977) Tectonic geomorphology North and South Garlock fault, California. Eight annual geomorpholofy symposium, State University of New York. Binghamton. pp 115–138.
Bull W (2007) Tectonic geomorphology of mountains: a new approach to paleoseismology. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford. pp 328.
Burbank DW, Anderson RS (2012) Tectonic Geomorphology. Blackwell publishing Ltd.
Burrough P (1986). Principles of geographical information systems for land resources assessment. Oxford University Press, New York.
Chowksey V, Maurya DM, Khonde N, Chamyal LS (2016) Morphotectonic control on Quaternary sedimentation and landscape evolution, Pachham Island, Kachchh, Western India. Arabian J Geosci 9: 594. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-016-2625-1
Cox RT (1994) Analysis of drainage basins symmetry as rapid tecnique to identify areas of possible quaternary tilt-block tectonics: an example from Mississippi Embayment. Geol Soc Am Bull 106: 571–581. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1994)106<0571:AODBSA>2.3.CO;2
Dar RA, Chandra R, Ramshoo SA (2013) Morphotectonic and Lithostratigraphic Analysis of Intermontane Karewa Basin of Kashimir Himalayas,India. Science Press and Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, CAS and Springer. pp 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-013-2494-y
Das S, Gupta K (2019) Morphotectonic analysis of the Sali River basin, Bankura district, West Bengal. Arabian J Geosci 12: 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-019-4406-0
Dasgupta S, Ganguly J, Neogi S (2004) Inverted metamorphic sequence in the Sikkim Himalayas: crystallization history, P-T gradient and implications. J Metamorph Geol 22: 395–412. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1314.2004.00522.x
Duvall A, Kirby E, Burbank D (2004) Tectonic and lithologic controls on bedrock channel profiles and processes in coastal California. J Geophys Res 109: 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1029/2003JF000086
El Hamdouni R, Irigaray C, Jiménez-Perálvarez JD et al. (2010) Correlations analysis between landslides and stream length-gradient (SL) index in the southern slopes of Sierra Nevada (Granada, Spain). In: Williams AL, Pinches GM, Chin CY, et al. (Eds.), Geologically Active. Taylor and Francis Group, London. pp 141–149.
Gabet EJ (2020) Lithological and structural controls on river profiles and networks in the northern Sierra Nevada (California, USA). GSA Bulletin 132(3–4): 655–667. https://doi.org/10.1130/B35128.1
Gonga-Saholiariliva N, Gunnell Y, Harbor D, et al. (2011) An automated method for producing synoptic regional maps of river gradient variation: procedure, accuracy tests, and comparison with other knickpoint mapping methods. Geomorphology 134: 394–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.07.013
Ghosh S, Sivakumar R (2018) Assessment of morphometric parameters for the development of Relative Active Tectonic Index and its significant for seismic hazard study:an integrated geoinformatic approach. Environ Earth Sci 77: 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7787-6
Hack JT (1957) Studies of longitudinal stream profilein Virginia and Mariland. Geol Surv Prof Pap 294: 45–95.
Hack JT (1973) Stream profile analysis and stream-gradient index. Bull US. Geol Surv 1(4): 421–429.
Heim A, Gansser A (1939) Central Himalaya: Geological observations of the Swiss Expedition 1936. N. Delhi: Hindusthan Publishing Company.
Horton RE (1932) Drainage Basin Characteristics. Trans Am Geophys Union 13: 350–361.
Keller E, Pinter N (1996) Active tectonics: earthquakes, uplift and landscape. New Jersey: Prentics Hall.
Klinkenberg B (1992) Fractals and morphometric measures: is there a relationship? Geomorphology 5(1): 5–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-555X(92)90055-S
Luirei K, Lokho K, Kothyari GC (2018) Neotectonic activity along the Churachandpur-Mao Fault in and around Karong, Manipur, India: based on morphotectonics and morphometric analyses. Arabian J Geosci 11: 571. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-018-3902-y
Lee CS, Tsai L (2010) A quantitative analysis for geomorphic indices of longitudinal river profile: a case study of the Choushui River, Central Taiwan. Environ Earth Sci 59: 1549–1558. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-009-0140-3
Markose VJ, Jayappa KS (2013) A quantitative analysis of relative tectonic activity classes of Kali river basin, southwest coast of India. Arabian J Geosci 6: 4729–4742. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-012-0719-y
Melton MA (1957) An Analysis of the Relations among Elements of Climate, Surface Properties and Geomorphology. Proj. NR 389-042, Tech. Rep 11, Columbia University, Department of Geology, ONR, New York.
Miller VC (1953) A quantitative geomorphic study of drainage basin characteristics in the Clinch mountain area. Department of Geology, Columbia University, Virginia and Tennessee.
Mitra G, Bhattacharyya K, Mukul M (2010) The lesser Himalayan duplex in Sikkim: Implications for variations in Himalayan shortening. J Geol Soc India 75: 289–301. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-010-0016-x
Mottram CM, Argles TW, Harris NW, et al. (2014) Tectonic interleaving along the Main Central Thrust, Sikkim Himalaya. J Geol Soc London, 171: 255–268. https://doi.org/10.1144/jgs2013-064
Moumeni-Taromsari M, Dehbozorgi M, Nozaem R et al. (2018) Active tectonics analysis of the Kalmard fault zone, Central Iran. Arabian J Geosci 11: 369. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-018-3701-5
Moussi A, Rebai N, Chaieb A, et al. (2018) GIS- based analysis of the Stream Length-Gradient Index for evaluating effects of active tectonics:a case study of Enfidha(North-East of Tunisia). Arabian J Geosci 11: 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-018-3466-x
Mukhopadhyay DK, Chakraborty S, Trepmann C, et al. (2017) The nature and evolution of the Main Central Thrust:Structural andgeochronological constraints from the Sikkim Himalaya, NE India. Lithos 282–283: 447–463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2017.01.015
Nakata T (1975) On Quarternary Tectonics around the Himalayas. Tohoku University, Geography. Sendai, Japan: The science reports of the Tohoku University.
Nakata T (1989) Active faults of the Himalaya of India and Nepal. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 232: 243–264.
Nath S, Chatterjee RS, Mohanty SP, et al. (2019) Comparative Evaluation of Active Tectonics in Parts of the Frontal Region of NW Himalaya, India by Geomorphic Analysis and Geophysical Investigation. J Geol Soc India 94: 197–205. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-019-1289-3
Ni JF (1989) Active tectonics of the Himalaya. Indian Acad Sci (Earth Planet. Sci) 98: 71–89. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02880377
Pánek T (2004) The use of morphometric parameters in tectonic geomorphology (on the example of the Western Beskydy Mts). Geographica 1: 111–126
Pant C C, Singh S P (2017) Morphotectonic analysis of Kosi River basin in Kumaun Lesser Himalaya: an evidence of neotectonics. Arabian J Geosci 10: 421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-017-3213-8
Partabian A, Nourbakhsh A, Ameri S (2016) GIS-based evaluation of geomorphic response to tectonic activity in Makran Mountain Range, SE of Iran. Geosci J 20: 921–934. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12303-016-0106-x
Phartiyal B, Kothyari GC (2011) Impact of neotectonics on drainage network evolution reconstructed from morphometric indices: case study from NW Indian Himalaya. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 56(1): 121–140. https://doi.org/10.1127/0372-8854/2011/0059
Prakash K, Mohanty T, Pati J, et al. (2016) Morphotectonics of the Jamini River basin, Bundelkhand Craton,Central India; using remote sensing and GIS technique. Appl Water Sci 7:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-016-0524-y
Rai PK, Mohan K, Mishra S, et al. (2017) A GIS-based approach in drainage morphometric analysis of Kanhar river basin, India. Appl Water Sci. 7: 217–232. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-014-0238-y
Rhea S (1993) Geomorphic observation of rivers in the Oregon coast range from a regional reconnaissance perspective. Geomorphology 6(2):135–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-555X(93)90043-2
Sanakhan A, Solgi A, Sorbi A. et al. (2020) Survey of active tectonic: the influence of river morphotectonic in Aras Basin. Arabian J Geosci 13: 633. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-020-05484-7
Saxena A, Sachan HK, Mukherjee PK, et al. (2012) Fluid-rock interaction across the South Tibetan Detachment, Garhwal Himalaya (India): Mineralogical and geochemical evidences. J Earth Syst Sci 121: 29–44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-012-0145-2
Schumm S A (1956) Evolution of drainage systems and slopes in Badlands at Perth Anboy, New Jersey. Geol Soc Am Bull 67(5):597–646. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1956)67[597:EODSAS]2.0.CO;2
Shankar R, Singh AK, Satyam GP et al. (2020) Active tectonics influences in the Satluj river basin in and around Rampur, Himachal Himalaya, India. Arabian J Geosci 13: 624. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-020-05473-w
Seeber L, Gornitz V (1983). River profiles along the Himalayan arc as indicators of active tectonics. Tectonophysics 92: 335–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(83)90201-9
Sharma S, Sarma JN (2017) Application of drainage basin morphotectonic analysis for assessment of tectonic activities over two regional structures of the Northeast India. J Geol Soc India 89: 271–280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-017-0599-6
Singh P (2007) Biodiversity, Conservation and Systematics. Jodhpur: Scientific Publishers.
Singh T, Sharma U, Awasthi A, et al. (2011) Geomorphic and structural evidences of neotectonic activity in the sub-Himalayan Belt of Nahan Salient, NW India. J Geol Soc India 77: 175–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-011-0021-8
Spencer J, Brooks A, Knight J (2007) Towards an objective approach for a regional-continental scale geomorphic river classification. In Wilson A, Dehaan R, Watts R, Page K, Bowmer K, Curtis A (Eds.), 5th Australian Stream Management Conference. Australian Rivers: making a difference. Thurgoona, New South Wales: Charles Sturt University. pp 372–377.
Srivastava P, Ray Y, Phartiyal B, et al. (2016) Rivers in the Himalaya: responses to neotectonics and past climate. Indian Natn Sci Acad 82: 763–772. https://doi.org/10.16943/ptinsa/2016/48483
Strahler AN (1952) Hypsometric (Area-Altitude) analysis of erosional topography. Geol Soc Am Bull 63(11): 1117–1142. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1952)63[1117:HAAOET]2.0.CO;2
Strahler AN (1964) Quantitative geomorphology of basinsand channel networks. Handbook of Applied Hydrology (Ed. Ven Te Chow), 4–11.
Thakur V (2004) Active tectonics of Himalayan Frontal Thrust and Seismic Hazard to Ganga Plain. Curr Sci 86(11): 1554–1560.
Thakur V (2013) Active tectonics of Himalayan Frontal Fault system. Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) 102: 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-013-0891-7
Troiani F, Seta MD (2008) The use of the Stream Length-Gradient index in morphotectonic analysis of small catchments: A case study from Central Italy. Geomorphology 102(1): 159–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.06.020
Troiani F, Galve JP, Piacentini D (2014) Spatial analysis of stream length-gradient (SL) index for detecting hillslope processes: a case of the Gállego River headwaters (Central Pyrenees, Spain). Geomorphology 214: 183–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.02.004
Vijith H, Prasannakumar V, Pratheesh P, et al. (2016) Evaluation of geomorphic expressions of bedrock Channels in the Western Ghats of southern Kerala, India, through quantitative analysis. Arabian J Geosci 9: 393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-016-2401-2
Vita-Finzi C (2012) River history and tectonics. Philos Trans R Soc 370: 2173–2192. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2011.0605
Wobus C, Heimsath A, Whipple K, et al. (2005) Active out-of-sequence thrust faulting in the central Nepalese Himalaya. Letters to nature 434: 1008–1011. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature03499
Yang G, Chen Z, Jiang J (2020) Drainage morphometry of the Lishui catchment in the middle Yangtze basin, China: morphologic and tectonic implications. Arabian J Geosci 13: 561. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-020-05481-w
Zhang Q, Xu W, Zhang J (2014) Method for determining the weight of functional objectives on manufacturing system. Sci World J: 1–9.
Acknowledgement
The authors thank Soumik Roy, Debolina Mitra and Chandradeep Mukherjee, post graduate students of Department of Geography, Vidyasagar College for their assistance in capturing field photographs. We also thank the assistance received from the Department of Geography, Vidyasagar College, Kolkata. We profusely thank Dr. Partha Basu, Former Professor, Department of Geography, Bhairab Ganguly College, Kolkata for his valuable insight during the fieldwork.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Saha, U.D., Neogy, S., Kar, J. et al. Lithological and tectonic response on catchment characteristics of Rishi Khola, Sikkim, India. J. Mt. Sci. 18, 3003–3024 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-021-6666-x
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-021-6666-x