Abstract
The divergent gap characteristics and spatial patterns of canopy gaps created by natural or artificial disturbances can exert a dominant influence on forest structure and composition. However, little research has been conducted on the effects of ice storm damage on canopy gaps in subtropical mature forests of South China. In this study, one semi-natural site was dominated by a broad-leaf forest and two managed sites were representative of plantations with coniferous forests. Based on airborne laser scanning data and field evidence across sites, statistical analyses were used to examine gap characteristics following ice storms of moderate severity. Generalized Ripley’s K-function analysis was applied to test gap spatial patterns at a range of scales, and spatial point pattern analysis was used to quantitate the relative importance of specific influences on patterns of gap occurrence. The results revealed that the average gap size was 75.7 m2 and that 12.2 gaps occurred per hectare. Most gaps were single-tree fall events. In addition to more gaps, the mean gap size was smaller and the shape was more complex in the semi-natural site than in two managed sites. Large differences in gap characteristics were observed among snapped, uprooted, snag, and artificial gap damage types. Gaps generally showed a clustered distribution at large scales (e.g. 70m), whereas spatial patterns varied with gap damage types at different sites. The occurrence of gaps was strongly related to slope and topographic position at the semi-natural site, whereas slope, stem density, and human accessibility (proximity to pathways) were the most important factors affecting gap occurrence at the managed sites. We suggest that gap-based silvicultural treatments and natural disturbances regimes conjoin, highlighting interactions with other factors such as microsite conditions, non-tree vegetation and more.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Arriaga L (2000) Gap-building-phase regeneration in a tropical montane cloud forest of north-eastern Mexico. Journal of Tropical Ecology 16(4): 535–562. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266467400001565
Baddeley A, Diggle PJ, Hardegen A, et al. (2014) On tests of spatial pattern based on simulation envelopes. Ecological Monographs 84(3): 477–489. https://doi.org/10.1890/13-2042.1
Baddeley A, Turner R (2005) spatstat: An R Package for Analyzing Spatial Point Patterns. Journal of Statistical Software 12(6): 1–42. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v012.i06
Bettinger P, Tang M (2015) Tree-Level Harvest Optimization for Structure-Based Forest Management Based on the Species Mingling Index. Forests 6(4): 1121–1144. https://doi.org/10.3390/f6041121
Blackburn GA, Abd Latif Z, Boyd DS (2015) Forest disturbance and regeneration: a mosaic of discrete gap dynamics and open matrix regimes? Journal of Vegetation Science 25(6): 1341–1354. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvs.12201
Bonnet S, Gaulton R, Lehaire F, et al. (2015) Canopy Gap Mapping from Airborne Laser Scanning: An Assessment of the Positional and Geometrical Accuracy. Remote Sensing 7(9): 11267–11294. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs70911267
Bragg DC, Shelton MG, Zeide B (2003) Impacts and management implications of ice storms on forests in the southern United States. Forest Ecology and Management 186(1): 99–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(03)00230-5
Curzon MT, Keeton WS (2010) Spatial characteristics of canopy disturbances in riparian old-growth hemlock - northern hardwood forests, Adirondack Mountains, New York, USA. Revue Canadienne De Recherche Forestière 40(1): 13–25. https://doi.org/10.1139/X09-157
Denslow JS (1980) Gap Partitioning among Tropical Rainforest Trees. Biotropica 12(2): 47–55. https://doi.org/10.2307/2388156
Devagiri GM, Khaple AK, Mohan S, et al. (2016) Species diversity, regeneration and dominance as influenced by canopy gaps and their characteristics in tropical evergreen forests of Western Ghats, India. Journal of Forest Research 27(4): 799–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-016-0223-4
Dong L-H, Jin X, Pukkala T, et al. (2019) How to manage mixed secondary forest in a sustainable way? European Journal of Forest Research 138(5): 789–801. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-019-01196-0
Frelich LE, Jõgiste K, Stanturf JA, et al. (2018) Natural Disturbances and Forest Management: Interacting Patterns on the Landscape. In: Perera AH, Peterson U, Pastur GM et al. (eds) Ecosystem Services from Forest Landscapes: Broadscale Considerations. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 221–248. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74515-2_8
Ge J, Xiong G, Wang Z, et al. (2015) Altered dynamics of broad-leaved tree species in a Chinese subtropical montane mixed forest: the role of an anomalous extreme 2008 ice storm episode. Ecology and Evolution 5(7): 1484–1493. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.1433
Getzin, Stephan, Nuske, et al. (2014) Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) to Quantify Spatial Gap Patterns in Forests. Remote Sensing 6(8): 6988–7004. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs6086988
Guo Q, Li W, Yu H, et al. (2010) Effects of Topographic Variability and Lidar Sampling Density on Several DEM Interpolation Methods. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 76(6): 701–712. https://doi.org/10.14358/pers.76.6.701
Habashi H (2019) Spatial correlation of pit and mound topography with canopy gaps in a virgin mixed beech forest, northern Iran. Journal of Forestry Research 30(1): 295–303. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-018-0604-y
Hart JL, Clark SL, Torreano SJ, et al. (2011) Composition, structure, and dendroecology of an old-growth Quercus forest on the tablelands of the Cumberland Plateau, USA. Forest Ecology and Management 266: 11–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2011.11.001
Kern CC, Burton JI, Raymond P, et al. (2017) Challenges facing gap-based silviculture and possible solutions for mesic northern forests in North America. Forestry 90(1): 4–17. https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpw024
Knoke T, Ammer C, Stimm B, et al. (2008) Admixing broadleaved to coniferous tree species: a review on yield, ecological stability and economics. European Journal of Forest Research 127(2): 89–101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-007-0186-2
Kosiba AM, Meigs GW, Duncan JA, et al. (2018) Spatiotemporal patterns of forest damage and disturbance in the northeastern United States: 2000–2016. Forest Ecology and Management 430: 94–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2018.07.047
Koukoulas S, Blackburn GA (2004) Quantifying the spatial properties of forest canopy gaps using LiDAR imagery and GIS. International Journal of Remote Sensing 25(15): 30493072. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160310001657786
Koukoulas S, Blackburn GA (2005) Spatial Relationships between Tree Species and Gap Characteristics in Broad-Leaved Deciduous Woodland. Journal of Vegetation Science 16(5): 587–596. https://doi.org/10.1658/1100-9233(2005)16[587:SRBTSA]2.0.CO;2
Lafon CW (2010) Ice-Storm Disturbance and Long-Term Forest Dynamics in the Adirondack Mountains. Journal of Vegetation Science 15(2): 267–276. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1654-1103.2004.tb02261.x
Li X, Jin L, Zhu J, et al. (2018a) Response of species and stand types to snow/wind damage in a temperate secondary forest, Northeast China. Journal of Forestry Research 29(2): 395–404. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-017-0446-z
Li Y, Lo Y, Lin Y, et al. (2018b) Bringing the Natives Back: Identifying and Alleviating Establishment Limitations of Native Hardwood Species in a Conifer Plantation. Forests 9(1): 3–20. https://doi.org/10.3390/f9010003
Liu F, Tan C, Wang H, et al. (2015a) Characterization of mid-subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest gap based on light detection and ranging(LiDAR). Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 26(12): 3611–3618. (In Chinese)
Liu Q, Hytteborn H (1991) Gap structure, disturbance and regeneration in a Primeval Picea abies Forest. Journal of Vegetation Science 2(3): 391–402. https://doi.org/10.2307/3235932
Liu T, Lin K, Vadeboncoeur MA, et al. (2015b) Understorey plant community and light availability in conifer plantations and natural hardwood forests in Taiwan. Applied Vegetation Science 18(4): 591–602. https://doi.org/10.1111/avsc.12178
Meigs GW, Morrissey RC, Bače R, et al. (2017) More ways than one: Mixed-severity disturbance regimes foster structural complexity via multiple developmental pathways. Forest Ecology and Management 406: 410–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2017.07.051
Muscolo A, Bagnato S, Sidari M, et al. (2014) A review of the roles of forest canopy gaps. Journal of Forestry Research 25(4): 725–736. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-014-0521-7
Næsset E (2007) Airborne laser scanning as a method in operational forest inventory: Status of accuracy assessments accomplished in Scandinavia. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 22(5): 433–442. https://doi.org/10.1080/02827580701672147
Nagel TA, Firm D, Rozenbergar D, et al. (2016) Patterns and drivers of ice storm damage in temperate forests of Central Europe. European Journal of Forest Research 135(3): 519–530. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-016-0950-2
Nagel TA, Mikac S, Dolinar M, et al. (2017) The natural disturbance regime in forests of the Dinaric Mountains: A synthesis of evidence. Forest Ecology and Management 388: 29–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.07.047
Nykänen M-L, Broadgate M, Kellomäki S, et al. (1997) Factors affecting snow damage of trees with particular reference to European conditions. Silva Fennica 31(2): 193–213. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.a8519
R Core Team (2019) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. URL https://www.R-project.org/
Rhoads AG, Hamburg SP, Fahey TJ, et al. (2002) Effects of an intense ice storm on the structure of a northern hardwood forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 32(10): 1763–1775. https://doi.org/10.1139/x02-089
Richards JD, Hart JL (2011) Canopy gap dynamics and development patterns in secondary Quercus stands on the Cumberland Plateau, Alabama, USA. Forest Ecology and Management 262(12): 2229–2239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2011.08.015
Rugani T, Diaci J, Hladnik D (2013) Gap dynamics and structure of two old-growth beech forest remnants in Slovenia. PLOS ONE 8(1): e52641. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0052641
Runkle JR (1981) Gap Regeneration in some old-growth forests of the eastern United States. Ecology 62(4): 1041–1051. https://doi.org/10.2307/1937003
Schliemann SA, Bockheim JG (2011) Methods for studying treefall gaps: A review. Forest Ecology and Management 261(7): 1143–1151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2011.01.011
Song X, Hogan JA, Lin L, et al. (2018) Canopy openness and topographic habitat drive tree seedling recruitment after snow damage in an old-growth subtropical forest. Forest Ecology and Management 429: 493–502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2018.07.038
Stan AB, Daniels LD (2014) Growth releases across a natural canopy gap-forest gradient in old-growth forests. Forest Ecology and Management 313: 98–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2013.11.004
Thom D, Seidl R (2016) Natural disturbance impacts on ecosystem services and biodiversity in temperate and boreal forests. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 91(3): 760–781. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12193
Vehmas M, Packalén P, Maltamo M, et al. (2011) Using airborne laser scanning data for detecting canopy gaps and their understory type in mature boreal forest. Annals of Forest Science 68(4): 825–835. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13595-011-0079-x
Vepakomma U, Kneeshaw D, De Grandpré L (2018) Influence of natural and anthropogenic linear canopy openings on forest structural patterns investigated using LiDAR. Forests 9(9): 540–559. https://doi.org/10.3390/f9090540
Vepakomma U, St-Onge B, Kneeshaw D (2008) Spatially explicit characterization of boreal forest gap dynamics using multi-temporal lidar data. Remote Sensing of Environment 112(5): 2326–2340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2007.10.001
White PS (1979) Pattern, process, and natural disturbance in vegetation. Botanical Review 45(3): 229–299. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02860857
Wiegand T, Moloney KA (2004) Rings, circles, and null - models for point pattern analysis in ecology. Oikos 104(2): 209–229. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0030-1299.2004.12497.x
Woods KD (2010) Intermediate disturbance in a late-successional hemlock-northern hardwood forest. Journal of Ecology 92(3): 464–476. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-0477.2004.00881.x
Zhou B, Yu M, Cao Y, et al. (2011) Impact of the 2008 ice storm on China’s forests. In: International Symposium on Water Resource and Environmental Protection, 2011. https://doi.org/10.1109/ISWREP.2011.5893423
Zhu J, Zhang G, Wang GG, et al. (2015a) On the size of forest gaps: Can their lower and upper limits be objectively defined? Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 213: 64–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2015.06.015
Zhu LR, Zhou T, Chen BM, et al. (2015b) How does tree age influence damage and recovery in forests impacted by freezing rain and snow? Science China Life Sciences 58(5): 472–479. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11427-014-4722-2
Acknowledgements
The research reported in this manuscript was funded by the Science & Technology Innovation Platform and Talents Plan of Hunan Province in China (Grants No. 2017TP1022) and the Natural Science Foundation of Hunan Province in China (Grant No. 2020JJ4938).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Liu, F., Yang, Zg. & Zhang, G. Canopy gap characteristics and spatial patterns in a subtropical forest of South China after ice storm damage. J. Mt. Sci. 17, 1942–1958 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-020-6020-8
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-020-6020-8