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Islamists and the politics of democratization: evidence from Turkey

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Abstract

This article offers a regime transition perspective on the complex relationship between Islamism and democratization in Turkey. By using Dankwart Rustow’s four-stage model of democratization, the article traces Islamist strategies of survival, nonconfrontation, offense, and hegemony back to the background condition of national unity, conflict of interest during the preparatory phase, and the requirements of the decision phase to complete a democratic transition. The evidence from Turkey demonstrates that democratization is not a linear process and Islamic actors may use politics of reform to ensure their survival, access to power, and domination.

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Notes

  1. For the text of AKP’s proposed constitution, see the draft document provided by the Turkish Grand National Assembly: “Anayasa Taslak Metni” (https://anayasa.tbmm.gov.tr/docs/tam_metin.docx)

  2. Copenhagen criteria include stable institutionalized democracy, rule of law, protection of and respect for minority rights, a functioning market economy, and ability to take on the obligations of the membership http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/glossary/accession_criteria_copenhague_en.htm, accessed October 12, 2013.

  3. “Political Reforms in Turkey,” Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs (http://www.abgs.gov.tr/files/pub/prt.pdf)

  4. http://www.tsk.tr/10_ARSIV/10_1_Basin_Yayin_Faaliyetleri/10_1_Basin_Aciklamalari/2007/BA_08.html

  5. The full text of the ruling can be accessed at Turkey’s official gazette, October 24, 2008 (http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2008/10/20081024-10.htm)

  6. “Erdoğan Pulls it off” Economist, September 13, 2010 (http://www.economist.com/blogs/newsbook/2010/09/turkeys_constitutional_referendum)

  7. “Fethullah Gülen’den Referandum İçin Çağrı,” [Call from Fethullah Gülen for the Referandum] Vatan, August 2, 2010.

  8. They have employed a strategy of interviewing celebrities, intellectuals, past victims of military rule almost every day. The pro-Gülen media was unusually blunt about their support for the proposed amendments.

  9. “Evet”i Desteklememiz, Kişileri Değil Yapılan İşi Takdir Meselesidir,” [Supporting ‘yes’ campaign is not supporting politicians behind it, rather appreciating the substance of the work done] Zaman, August 24, 2010.

  10. Hüseyin Gülerce, “CHP, Cemaat, AK Parti,” Zaman, 14 May 2010.

  11. In a 2009 cable leaked by Wikileaks, the U.S. ambassador to Ankara, James Jeffrey, commented “The assertion that the TNP [Turkish National Police] is controlled by Gülenists is impossible to confirm but we have found no one who disputes it” (https://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/09ANKARA1722_a.html)

  12. “Erdoğan and his Generals,” Economist Feb. 2, 2013 (http://www.economist.com/news/europe/21571147-once-all-powerful-turkish-armed-forces-are-cowed-if-not-quite-impotent-erdogan-and-his)

  13. The full-text of the draft is not available on AKP’s official website, but accessible through other Turkish websites: (http://www.memurlar.net/common/news/documents/87511/anayasa.pdf)

  14. For an analysis of the motives behind the process, see Ensaroglu 2013.

  15. Mustafa Akyol, “Is Gülen Movement Against Peace With PKK?” Al Monitor, May 22, 2013 (http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/05/gulen-movement-peace-process-pkk.html)

  16. Hakkı Taş, “Turkey – from tutelary to delegative democracy,” Third World Quarterly, 36:4, 776–791.

  17. “Reclusive Turkish Imam Criticizes Gaza Flotilla,” Wall Street Journal, June 4, 2010.

  18. “Ankara in Shock over Probe on Intel Chiefs,” Hurriyet Daily News, http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/ankara-in-shock-over-probe-on-intel-chiefs.aspx?pageID=238&nID=13359&NewsCatID=338

  19. “Investigation of Turkish Intelligence head won’t proceed, says prosecutor,” Hurriyet Daily News, March 22, 2013 (http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/investigation-of-turkish-intelligence-head-wont-proceed-says-prosecutor.aspx?pageID=238&nID=43491&NewsCatID=338)

  20. Transcripts of the recordings were published by daily Milliyet on 28 February 2013.

  21. “Gülen: Karınca deyip geçmeyin” Cumhuriyet, 7 June, 2013 (http://www.cumhuriyet.com.tr/haber/diger/426282/Gulen__Karinca_deyip_gecmeyin.html)

  22. “Defiant Erdoğan tells Turkey: It’s my duty to end protests” Independent, June 16, 2013 (http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/defiant-erdogan-tells-turkey-it-s-my-duty-to-end-protests-8659981.html)

  23. Some high circulation twitter hashtags: #dersanemolamsaydı (if I didn’t have my tutoring center); #dershanemiseviyorum (I love my tutoring center); #bencedershaneler (tutoring centers according to me)

  24. “The Journalists and Writers Foundation’s (JWF) response to allegations against Hizmet Movement,” http://gyv.org.tr/Haberler/Detay/2455.

  25. Gülen’s weekly sermon posted on September 2, 2013, “Yolumuz ve Uslubumuz,” http://www.herkul.org/bamteli/yolumuz-ve-uslubumuz/

  26. “Turkish ministers” sons arrested in corruption and bribery investigation,” The Guardian, December 17, 2013 (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/17/turkish-ministers-sons-arrested-corruption-investigation)

  27. “Turks See Purge as Witch Hunt of ‘Medieval’ Darkness,” New York Times, September 16, 2016 (http://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/17/world/europe/turkey-erdogan-gulen-purge.html)

  28. The pressure took different forms, including withdrawing state money, canceling payment agreements for public institutions, forcing pro-government businesses to close their accounts, and finally lobbying the autonomous regulatory banking agency (TMSF) to take action against the bank.

  29. “Turkey”s anti-Gülen crackdown ripples far and wide,” Reuters, July 30, 2016 (http://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-security-gulen-education-idUSKCN10A0AM)

  30. “Turkish government hires UK law firm to probe cleric”s global network,” Reuters, March 26, 2015 (http://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-politics-gulen-idUSKCN0SK20520151026)

  31. According to the BBC News, some countries, such as Somalia, Azerbaijan and Pakistan, were more susceptible to government pressure and agreed to close down Gülen schools or transfer management. Other countries in Western Europe, Canada, Indonesia, Kenya, Nigeria, and Kyrgyzstan resisted the pressures. (http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-37422822)

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  1. School of Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, University of Washington, Tacoma, 1900 Commerce St, Tacoma, WA, 98402, USA

    Etga Ugur

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Ugur, E. Islamists and the politics of democratization: evidence from Turkey. Cont Islam 11, 137–155 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11562-017-0380-z

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